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GREEK   SERIES   FOR  COLLEGES   AND   SCHOOLS 

EDITED 
UNDER   THE   SUPERVISION  OF 

HERBERT   WEIR    SMYTH,    PH.D. 

ELIOT  PROFESSOR  OF  GREEK  LITERATURE  IN   HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


VOLUMES   OF  THE   SERIES 
GREEK  GRAMMAR  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES.     By  the  Editor, 

Prof.  Herbert  Weir  Smyth. 
GREEK  GRAMMAR   FOR  COLLEGES.      By  the  Editor,  Prof.  Herbert  Weir 

Smyth. 
BEGINNER'S    GREEK    BOOK.     Prof.  Allen  R.  Benner,  Phillips  Academy,  An- 

dover;   and  the  Editor. 

BRIEF    GREEK    SYNTAX.     Prof.  Louis  Bevier,  Jr.,  Rutgers  College. 
GREEK   PROSE    COMPOSITION    FOR   SCHOOLS.      Clarence  W.  Gleason, 

Volkmann  School,  Boston. 

GREEK  PROSE  COMPOSITION  FOR  COLLEGES.     Prof.  Edward  H. 

Spieker,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

AESCHYLUS.      PROMETHEUS.      Prof.  J.  E.  Harry,  University  of  Cincinnati. 
ARISTOPHANES.      CLOUDS.      Dr.  L.  L.  Forman,  Cornell  University. 
DEMOSTHENES.     ON  THE  CROWN.     Prof.  Milton  W.  Humphreys,  University 

of  Virginia. 
EURIPIDES.     IPHIGENIA  IN  TAURIS.     Prof.   William   N.  Bates,  University   of 

Pennsylvania. 

EURIPIDES.     MEDEA.     Prof.  Mortimer  Lamson  Earle,  Columbia  University. 
HERODOTUS.      BOOKS  VII.-VIII.     Prof.  Charles  Forster  Smith  and  Prof.  Arthur 

Gordon  Laird,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
HOMER.     ILIAD.      Prof.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett,  Cornell  University. 

BOOKS  I.-III.    BOOKS  I.-III.  AND  SELECTIONS. 

LYSIAS.      Prof.  Charles  D.  Adams,  Dartmouth  College. 

PLATO.     APOLOGY  AND  CRITO.      Prof.  Isaac  Flagg,  University  of  California. 

PLATO.      EUTHYPHRO.      Prof.  William  A.  Heidel,  Wesleyan  University. 

THUCYDIDES.  BOOKS  II.-III.  Prof.  W.  A.  Lamberton,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

XENOPHON.  ANABASIS.  BOOKS  I.-IV.  Dr.  M.  W.  Mather,  Instructor  in 
Harvard  University,  and  Prof.  J.  W.  Hewitt,  Wesleyan  University. 

XENOPHON.  HELLENICA  (Selections).  Prof.  Carleton  L.  Brownson.  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York. 

GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY.  Prof.  Harold  N.  Fowler,  Western  Reserve  University, 
•  and  Prof.  James  R.  Wheeler,  Columbia  University. 

GREEK   LITERATURE.      Dr.  Wilmer  Cave  Wright,  Bryn  Mawr  College. 

GREEK  RELIGION.  Arthur  Fairbanks,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Director  of  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 

GREEK  SCULPTURE.  Prof.  Rufus  B.  Richardson,  formerly  Director  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Classical  Studies,  Athens. 


A    HANDBOOK 


OF 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


BY 
HAROLD    NORTH    FOWLER 

WESTERN    RESERVE   UNIVERSITY 

AND 

JAMES    RIGNALL   WHEELER 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
WITH  THE  COLLABORATION  OF 

GORHAM    PHILLIPS   STEVENS 


NEW    YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 

81190 


COPYRIGHT,  1909,  BY 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 

ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON. 


FOWLER  AND   WHEELER.      GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGYo 

'W.  f.    8 


Art 
Library 

7  £ 

/       ^j 


WILLIAM   WATSON   GOODWIN 

os  TTOT'  es'EAAaSa  yfjv  vcapoiis  ly/xas  €KaAe<r(ras 

KCIS  Movo-wj/  K^TTOVS,  IlaAAaSt  Trct^o'/icvos  ' 
vi)v  8'  dya^wi/  TroAAwj/  (3ai.r]v  Se'^ai  Ttv'  d/ 
re  y^s  epar^s,  crot  TC  X"/°lv 


PREFACE 

THIS  manual  is  intended  primarily  for  the  use  of  students 
who  expect  to  pursue  the  study  of  Greek  Archaeology  seriously, 
but  it  may  also  be  of  use  to  those  who  desire  only  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  Neither  the  serious  student  at  the 
beginning  of  his  course  of  study  nor  the  general  reader  should 
be  disturbed  by  a  discussion  of  conflicting  theories.  Matters  con- 
cerning which  some  degree  of  certainty  has  not  been  attained 
have,  therefore,  been  in  great  measure  omitted.  The  attempt 
has  been  made  to  avoid  a  very  detailed  treatment  of  the  subject- 
matter,  though  in  the  discussion  of  technical  processes,  espe- 
cially those  of  architecture,  it  was  necessary  to  include  a  good 
many  details,  chiefly  because  a  knowledge  of  them  is  needful 
to  the  student  and  is  not  easily  accessible.  Few  entire  cate- 
gories of  works  of  art  have  (like  the  carvings  in  ivory)  been 
completely  omitted,  though  some  (e.g.  terracotta  reliefs)  have 
been  treated  very  briefly,  since  the  size  of  the  book  was  limited. 
In  the  chapter  on  Vases,  footnotes  have  been  used  more  freely 
than  elsewhere,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  material  for  illustra- 
tion and  detailed  study  is  scattered  and  not  always  easily  found. 

The  chapter  on  Architecture  is  the  work  of  Mr.  Gorham 
Phillips  Stevens,  formerly  for  two  years  Fellow  in  Architecture 
at  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens,  on  the 
grant  of  the  Carnegie  Institution.  Its  historical  and  descriptive 
parts  are  based  largely  on  portions  of  Borrmann's  Die  Baukunst 
des  Altertums  und  des  Islam  im  Mittelalter,  and  the  chapter  has 
been  revised  by  Mr.  Fowler.  The  chapters  on  Vases  and  Paint- 
ing are  by  Mr.  Wheeler,  and  he  has  supervised  the  preparation 
of  the  illustrations.  The  other  chapters  are  by  Mr.  Fowler,  but 
both  authors  have  read  the  whole  book  carefully  and  accept 

7 


8  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

responsibility  for  the  statements  contained  in  it.  The  chapter 
on  Gems  is  little  more  than  a  brief  summary  of  the  late  Pro- 
fessor Furtwangler's  Antike  Gemmen. 

The  authors  desire  to  express  their  thanks  to  all  who  have 
aided  them  in  their  work,  whether  by  advice  and  counsel  or  in 
other  ways.  Thanks  are  due  especially  to  Professor  R.  Borr- 
mann,  and  the  publisher,  E.  A.  Seemann,  for  permission  to 
make  use  of  Die  Baukunst  des  Alter  turns  und  des  Islam  im  Mit- 
telalter ;  to  the  late  Professor  Furtwangler  and  the  firms  of 
F.  Bruckmann  and  Giesecke  and  Devrient  for  permission  to 
reproduce  illustrations  from  Furtwangler  and  Reichhold's  Grie- 
chische  Vasenmalerei  and  Furtwangler's  Antike  Gemmen;  to  the 
authorities  of  the  British  Museum,  and  more  particularly  to 
Mr.  H.  A.  Grueber,  for  permission  to  reproduce  illustrations 
from  Coins  of  the  Ancients ;  to  Dr.  Edward  Robinson  of  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  for  permission  to  publish 
Greek  gold  work  in  the  Museum ;  and  to  the  authorities  of  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  particularly  to  Dr.  Edward  Rob- 
inson, Mr.  J.  Randolph  Coolidge,  Jr.,  Dr.  Arthur  Fairbanks, 
Mr.  B.  H.  Hill,  and  Mr.  Sidney  N.  Deane,  for  allowing  the 
publication  of  monuments  in  the  Museum  and  for  furnishing 

photographs  of  them. 

HAROLD  N.   FOWLER. 
JAMES   R.   WHEELER, 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

THE  STUDY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHAEOLOGY  IN  MODERN  TIMES      .       n 

CHAPTER   I 
PREHELLENIC  GREECE 38 

CHAPTER  II 
ARCHITECTURE       ...........      96 

CHAPTER   III 
SCULPTURE 193 

CHAPTER   IV 
TERRACOTTAS 293 

CHAPTER  V 
METAL  WORK  (BRONZES,  SILVERWARE,  JEWELRY)       ....    322 

CHAPTER  VI 
COINS 353 

CHAPTER  VII 
ENGRAVED  GEMS 0       ..       „  381 

CHAPTER  VIII 
VASES 412 

CHAPTER  IX 
PAINTING  AND  MOSAIC 526 

BIBLIOGRAPHY        ...........    542 

INDEX 551 

9 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  STUDY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHAEOLOGY  IN 

MODERN   TIMES 

GREEK  archaeology  may  be  defined  as  the  scientific  study  of 
the  arts  of  construction  and  design  as  they  were  developed  by  the 
Greeks ;  but  since  much  important  information  concerning  art  is 
derived  from  inscriptions,  and  the  identification  of  works  of  art, 
especially  of  architecture,  is  often  affected  by  topographical  con- 
siderations, epigraphy  and  topography  are  frequently  included  in  the 
definition  of  archaeology.1  Since,  however,  epigraphy  and  topog- 
raphy are  not  within  the  scope  of  this  book,  their  progress 
will  not  be  sketched  in  this  chapter,  and  for  the  same  reason  As- 
syriology,  Egyptology,  and  various  other  branches  of  archaeology 
will  be  passed  over  in  silence,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  their  prog- 
ress has  been,  and  is,  an  important  factor  in  that  of  Greek  archae- 
ology. 

For  the  most  part  Greek  archaeology  is  a  product  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  though  its  beginnings  are  to  be  sought  in  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  when  Petrarch  ( 1 304-  The     rf 
1374)  collected  and  interpreted  Roman  coins,  Cyri-  oftheRe- 
acus  of  Ancona  (b.  1391,  d.  before  1457)  travelleoTin  naissance 
southern  Italy,  Illyria,  and  Greece,  collecting  and  copying  inscrip- 
tions and  making  drawings  of  buildings  and  other  monuments, 
Pliny,  Pausanias,  Vitruvius,  and  other  ancient  writers  were  studied 
lorthe  sake  of  the  information  they  convey  concerning  ancient 
art,  and  the  beginnings  of  the  great  Italian  museums  were  made. 

1  The  term  "  archaeology  "  is  sometimes  used  in  a  broader  sense  to  include  the 
study  of  Greek  antiquities  as  a  whole,  especially  as  known  to  us  through  other  than 
literary  sources. 

II 


12  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

At  the  same  time  artists  appreciated  and  studied  the  remains  of 
ancient  art.  The  influence  of  Roman  architecture  and  of  the 
study  of  Vitruvius  upon  the  architecture  of  the  Renaissance  is  too 
well,  known  to  require  mention.  Mantegna  (1431-1504)  declared 
that  good  antiques  were  more  beautiful  than  living  figures,  and 
his  paintings  bear  witness  to  the  honesty  of  his  declaration. 

The  study  of  ancient  art  was  at  this  time,  and  almost  until  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  virtually  confined  to  monu- 
ments that  existed  in  Italy  (chiefly  in  Rome),  and  these  were, 
with  few  exceptions,  such  as  the  Dying  Gaul,  the  Gaul  Killing 
Himself,  the  Farnese  Bull,  and  the  Laocoon,  either  strictly  Roman 
works  or  Roman  copies  of  Greek  originals.  The  interest  of  those 
who  studied  the  monuments  was  also,  at  least  until  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  chiefly  in  Roman,  rather  than  Greek  his- 
tory and  art,  and  their  studies  were  carried  on  from  a  Roman 
point  of  view.  Nevertheless,  they  made  useful  collections  of 
material  and  read  the  ancient  authors  with  great  diligence. 

In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the  Roman  museums 
increased  in  number  and  in  the  importance  of  their  contents,  and 

at  the  same  time  collections  of  ancient  marbles  were 
The  six- 
teenth and      formed  in  other  places  in  Italy,  and   even  in  other 

seventeenth  countries.  These  collections  still  consisted  of  objects 
centuries  «•  «  .  »  .  ..  «  . 

found  in  Italy,  chiefly  in  and  near  Rome,  though  some 

collections,  especially  in  England,  like  that  formed  in  the  early 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  Thomas  Howard,  fourth  Earl 
of  Arundel,  contained  also  objects  brought  from  Greece  and  the 
Greek  islands.  The  works  of  sculpture  discovered  in  Italy,  since 
they  are,  with  few  exceptions,  either  specifically  Roman  or  Roman 
copies  of  Greek  originals,  possess  a  certain  similarity  in  technique, 
and  even  in  general  appearance,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  trace 
in  them  the  progress  of  art.  It  is  therefore  only  natural  that  the 
scientific  historical  method  of  archaeological  investigation  was  of 
slow  growth.  Even  as  late  as  the  Napoleonic  period,  when  the 
most  famous  works  of  art  from  all  parts  of  Europe  were  gathered 
together  in  Paris,  the  great  authority  of  the  time,  Ennio  Quirino 


INTRODUCTION  13 

Visconti,  maintained  that  Greek  art  reached  its  height  in  the  time 
of  Phidias  and  remained  without  important  changes  at  the  same 
level  until  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  this  doctrine  met  with  no 
little  favor,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Winckelmann  had  promul- 
gated a  truer  theory  half  a  century  before. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  discovery  of 
Herculaneum  and,  almost  at  the  same  time,  of  great  numbers  of 

painted  vases  in  Etruria  and  southern  Italy,  followed  , 

Hercula- 
in  1 748  by  the  discovery  of  Pompeii,  furnished  new  neum,  Etru- 

material  for  study  and  new  points  of  comparison  with  ria>  and 

what  was  already  known.     Especially  important  were 

the  bronze  statues  found  at  Herculaneum  in  1753,  for  the  Greek 

origin  of  the  painted  vases  was  not  clearly  recognized  until  much 

later. 

Such  was  the  material  available,  chiefly  Roman,  when  Johann 
Joachim  Winckelmann  (1717-1768)  published,  in  1763,  his  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Art.  Winckelmann  is  justly  regarded  Winckel- 
as  the  founder  of  the  science  of  archaeology,  for  he  mann 
was  the  first  to  study  ancient  art  from  the  historical  —  which  is  in 
this  instance  the  scientific  —  point  of  view.  His  History,  after- 
wards supplemented  by  the  Monumenti  Inediti,  was  recognized  as 
the  work  of  a  master,  and  its  influence  endures  even  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  discoveries  made  since  his 
time  have  proved  many  of  his  views  to  be  erroneous.  His  errors 
were  due  chiefly  to  the  lack  of  original  Greek  (as  well  as  Egyp- 
tian and  oriental)  works  of  art.  He  recognized  that  the  history 
of  art  is  a  continual  progress,  and  divided  Greek  art  into  four 
periods :  the  old  style,  from  the  beginning  to  the  fifth  century ; 
the  high  style,  from  the  time  of  Phidias  to  that  of  Alexander  ;  the 
style  of  imitators  and  the  fall  of  art  through  imitation;  and  Greek 
art  under  the  Romans.  These  main  divisions  may  still,  though 
with  some  modifications,  be  accepted. 

Many  scholars  of  the  eighteenth  century  wrote  on  archaeologi- 
cal themes.  They  had  little  or  no  knowledge  of  original  Greek 
works  of  art,  but  their  books  are,  nevertheless,  even  now  valu- 


I4  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

able  as  collections  of  material,  or  examples  of  method,  or  both. 

Among  these  are  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  (1655-1741),  whose 

work,  DAntiquite  expliquee  et  represents  en  figures,  is 

the  eigh-        an  immense  collection  of  material,  but  without  dis- 

teenth  cen-      tinction  of  epochs  or  of  Roman  copies  from  Greek 
tury 

originals;    Gotthold   Ephraim    Lessing   (1729-1781), 

whose  Laokoon,  an  essay  on  the  boundaries  of  literature  and  art, 
is  a  masterpiece  of  criticism;  Christian  Gottlob  Heyne  (1729- 
1812),  a  learned  philologist,  who  lectured  on  archaeology  and 
inserted  valuable  archaeological  matter  in  his  commentaries  on 
ancient  authors;  and  Joseph  Hilarius  von  Eckhel  (1737-1798), 
whose  great  work  on  ancient  coins,  Doctrina  Numorum  Veterum 
(1792-1798),  cannot  even  yet  be  entirely  neglected  by  numis- 
matists. Other  scholars  also,  such  as  Carlo  Fea  and  Georg  Zoega, 
although  their  published  works  are  concerned  with  Roman  (and, 
in  the  case  of  Zoega,  with  Egyptian)  archaeology,  exercised  great 
influence  upon  the  study  of  all  remains  of  antiquity.  Especially 
important  are  the  great  publications  of  the  collections  formed  at 
Naples  by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  which  appeared  in  1766-1767 
and  1791-1795,  for  they  made  the  Greek  vases  of  Lower  Italy 
not  only  known  but  popular.  Hamilton  was  not  the  only  English- 
man who  collected  works  of  ancient  art  at  this  time,  and  several 
such  collections,  among  them  that  of  Richard  Payne  Knight  and 
the  greater  part  of  Hamilton's  own,  are  now  among  the  rich  pos- 
sessions of  the  British  Museum,  which  was  first  opened  in  1759. 
Even  before  Winckelmann  wrote  his  History  of  Ancient  Art, 
the  exploration  of  Greece  had  begun.  In  1674  the  Marquis  de 
Nointel  was  in  Athens,  and  with  him  was  an  artist  who  made 
drawings  of  the  Parthenon  and  its  sculptures.  Who  the  artist  was 
is  uncertain,  but  he  was  not,  as  has  been  supposed  for  many 
years,  Jacques  Carrey,  a  pupil  of  Lebrun.  The  drawings,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  pediments,  are  of  great  importance,  because  they 
were  made  before  the  explosion  which  shattered  the  building  in 
1687.  In  1675-1676  Jacques  Spon  and  George  Wheler  visited 
Greece,  Dalmatia,  the  Greek  islands,  and  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  and 


INTRODUCTION  15 

published,  in  1676  and  1678,  an  account  of  their  journey,  with 
descriptions  and  discussions  of  ancient  monuments  at  Athens  and 
elsewhere,  a  work  which  is  still  of  some  importance  because  it 
describes  the  monuments  of  Athens  as  they  were  before  the  bom- 
bardment of  the  Acropolis  in  1687  by  the  Venetians. 

But  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  that 
the  ruins  of  Athens  were  carefully  measured  and  adequately  pub- 
lished. This  was  the  joint  work  of  the  painter,  James  Stuart, 
and  the  architect,  Nicholas  Revett,  who  were  in  Greece  and  the 
neighboring  regions  .  nearly  four  years  (1751-1754),  spending 
half  of  that  time  in  the  careful  study  and  delineation  of  the  monu- 
ments of  Athens.  In  1761-1762  appeared  the  first  volume  of  the 
Antiquities  of  Athens,  a  work  which  was  in  another  The  An^9_ 
way  as  important  as  Winckelmann's  History  of  An-  uities  of 
dent  Art,  and  which  was  not  surpassed  by  any  ar-  Athens 
chaeological  publication  for  more  than  a  century.  The  second 
volume  appeared  in  1787-1788,  after  Stuart's  death,  the  third  in 
1 794,  and  the  fourth,  which  treats  of  the  monuments  of  Salonichi, 
Pola,  and  Corinth,  and  contains  also  Pars'  drawings  of  the  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon,  not  until  1816.  A  later  edition,  published  in 
1825—1827,  contains  additional  notes  by  various  authors.  As  a 
supplement  to  the  Antiquities  of  Athens,  Sir  William  Cell  pub- 
lished in  1817  the  Unedited  Antiquities  of  Attica,  treating  of  the 
ruins  of  Eleusis,  Rhamnus,  Sunium,  and  Thoricus,  and  a  further 
supplement,  published  in  1830,  by  Cockerell,  Kinnaird,  and 
Donaldson,  was  devoted  to  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Girgenti,  the 
early  temple  of  Cadacchio  on  the  island  of  Corfu,  the  temple  at 
Phigaleia,  and  the  "  Treasury  of  Atreus."  So  far  reaching  and 
long  continued  was  the  immediate  effect  of  the  work  of  Stuart  and 
Revett. 

A  natural  consequence  of  the  interest  aroused  in  England  by 
the  first  volume  of  the  Antiquities  of  Athens  was  the  sending,  by 
the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  founded  in  1733,  of  an  expedition  to 
explore,  measure,  and  draw  the  monuments  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece.  The  leader  of  the  expedition  was  Dr.  Richard  Chandler, 


i 6  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

and  with  him  were  Revett  and  the  artist  Pars.  Their  report,  the 
Antiquities  of  Ionia,  appeared  in  1769  and  1797,  and  was  for 
many  years  the  chief  source  of  information  concerning  the  ruins 
of  Ephesus,  Priene,  Miletus,  Mylasa,  Sardis,  Olympia,  and  other 
less  important  places. 

VVinckelmann  laid  the  foundation  for  the  historical  study  of 
Greek  art,  and  Stuart  and  Revett,  with  those  who  continued  and 
supplemented  their  work,  added,  as  important  material  for  such 
study,  careful  descriptions  and  drawings  of  monuments  of  Greek 
architecture  and  sculpture.  But  as  yet  original  works  of  Greek 
art,  with  the  exception  of  vases,  small  bronzes,  coins,  and  gems, 
were  almost  unknown  to  all  who  had  not  themselves  travelled  in 
Greece.  About  1787  one  metope  and  one  slab  of  the  frieze  of  the 
Parthenon  were  brought  to  France  through  Choisseul  Gouffier,  at 
that  time  French  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  but  they  attracted 
The  Elgin  little  attention.  It  was  Thomas  Bruce,  Lord  Elgin, 
Marbles  who  first  made  Greek  art  really  known  in  modern 
times.  In  1799  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  Sublime 
Porte.  He  gathered  together  a  number  of  artists,  who  reached 
Athens  in  1800,  where  they  were  at  first  allowed  only  to  make 
drawings ;  but  the  victories  of  the  British  forces  over  the  French 
in  Egypt  gave  the  ambassador  greater  influence  at  the  Porte,  and 
he  obtained  permission  to  make  casts  and  to  remove  stones  on  which 
were  inscriptions  or  figures.  After  Lord  Elgin's  recall,  in  1803, 
two  hundred  cases  filled  with  sculptures  from  the  Parthenon,  the 
Erechtheum,  and  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike,  with  various  other 
works  found  in  Athens,  besides  many  casts,  were  shipped  for  Eng- 
land. Eighty  cases  were  left  behind  and  did  not  reach  England 
until  1812.  Lord  Elgin  himself  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French 
and  not  released  until  1806.  When  he  arrived  in  England  he 
gathered  his  treasures  together  from  the  various  ports  where  they 
had  been  landed  and  exhibited  them  in  London.  Although  they 
were  enthusiastically  admired  by  some  artists,  the  influential 
Society  of  Dilettanti,  led  by  Payne  Knight,  failed  to  recognize  their 
value,  and  it  was  not  until  Visconti,  then  the  leading  archaeologist, 


INTRODUCTION  17 

and  Canova,  the  most  famous  sculptor  of  Europe,  and  other  dis- 
tinguished foreigners  had  expressed  unbounded  admiration  for 
them  that  they  were  finally  purchased  by  act  of  Parliament  for  the 
British  Museum.  The  price  paid  did  not  reimburse  Lord  Elgin  for 
his  expenditures,  but  his  name  is  indissolubly  connected  with  the 
"  Elgin  Marbles,"  the  possession  of  which  makes  the  British 
Museum  more  important  than  any  other  collection  of  works  of 
Greek  sculpture. 

While  the  Elgin  Marbles  were  awaiting  their  final  disposition, 
two  other  important  series  of  Greek  sculptures  were  added  to 
European  museums.  In  181 1  two  Germans,  Haller  von  Hallerstein 
and  Linckh,  and  two  Englishmen,  Cockerell  and  Foster,  Bassae  ana 
while  investigating  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Aphaia  Aegina 
(then  supposed  to  be  that  of  Zeus  Panhellenius  and  afterwards 
that  of  Athena),  on  the  island  of  Aegina,  discovered  the  remains  of 
the  pediment  groups.  These  were  bought  in  1812  by  the  Crown 
Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  who  had  them  restored  by  Thorwaldsen 
and  placed,  as  its  most  precious  possession,  in  the  newly  established 
Glyptothek  in  Munich.1  The  same  group  of  travellers  discovered 
in  1811  the  frieze  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassae 
(Phigaleia),  which  was  bought  in  1814  for  the  British  Museum. 
The  excavations  at  these  two  sites  not  only  led  to  the  discovery  of 
important  works  of  sculpture,  but  at  the  same  time  added  to  what 
was  known  of  Greek  architecture. 

These  discoveries  in  Greece    proper   were    supplemented  by 
equally  important,  and  more  extensive,  investigations  of  the  monu- 
ments of  Greek  art  in  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily.     In  1807  William 
Wilkins  published  his  An tiquities  of  Magna  Graecia,  in  1812  Cock- 
erell investigated  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Girgenti,  and  Magna 
in  1822-1823   Samuel  Angell  and  William  Harris  ex-   Graecia  and 
cavated  at  Selinus.     Here  temples  of  various  ground   SlcUy 
plans  and  various  ages,  though  all  early,  were  discovered,  and  the 
metopes  of  one  temple  (temple  C  )  differed  as  widely  from  the 

1  Further  excavations  were  carried  on  under  Professor  A.  Furtwangler,  in 
1901-1902,  with  interesting  and  important  results. 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  2 


1 8  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

works  of  Greek  sculpture  previously  known  as  did  the  ground  plans 
of  the  temples  from  those  of  the  "Theseum  "  and  the  Parthenon. 
Traces  of  color  on  the  metopes  led  to  much  discussion  of  the  use 
of  color  in  Greek  sculpture  and  architecture,  which  was  carried  on 
later  by  Hittorff,  Semper,  and  others.  Later  discoveries  have  dis- 
proved some  of  the  early  theories,  but  have  established  without  the 
possibility  of  a  doubt  that  the  Greek  architects  and  sculptors  made 
free  and  constant  use  of  color.  Further  excavations  and  investi- 
gations at  Selinus,  carried  on,  with  intermissions,  almost  to  the  end 
of  the  century  by  the  Duke  of  Serradifalco,  Saverio  Cavallari,  and 
others,  led  to  the  uncovering  of  further  temples  and  sculptures, 
with  other  remains  of  the  ancient  city. 

In  Greece  itself  the  war  for  independence  (1821-1828)  interfered 
with  archaeological  discovery,  but  shortly  before  the 
the  wl/for*  war  broke  out,  chance  brought  to  light  (1820)  the 
indepen-  Aphrodite  of  Melos,  one  of  the  most  popular  and,  in 
some  respects,  most  enigmatical  extant  works  of  ancient 
art.  In  1828  a  French  army,  accompanied  by  artists  and  scientists, 
landed  in  Peloponnesus,  and  in  1829  Blouet  and  Dubois  excavated 
for  a  short  time  at  Olympia,  where  they  secured  for  the  Louvre  one 
metope  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  and  some  fragments.  In  1832  Otto 
of  Bavaria  became  king  of  Greece,  and  made  Ludwig  Ross  Con- 
servator of  Antiquities.  Under  Ross  (1832-1836),  most  of  the 
mediaeval  and  Turkish  buildings  were  removed  from  the  Acropol: 
at  Athens,  various  works  of  sculpture  were  discovered,  and  (1835) 
Schaubert  and  Hansen  restored  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike,  which 
had  been  built  into  the  Turkish  fortifications.  In  the  following 
years  the  Erechtheum  was  partially  restored ;  Penrose  made  care- 
fully measured  drawings  of  the  Parthenon  and  the  Propylaea  (1846- 
1847)  and  determined  minutely  the  horizontal  curvatures  of  the 
Parthenon ;  the  Greek  Archaeological  Society  was  organized 
(1837);  and  the  French  School  at  Athens  was  founded  (1846). 
The  most  important  single  discovery  at  this  time  was  the  Apollo 
of  Tenea  (1846),  which  is  now  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich. 
The  travels  of  Ludwig  Ross  (especially  among  the  islands)  and 


INTRODUCTION  19 

H.  N.  Urlichs  furnished  hardly  less  important  topographical,  histori- 
cal, and  archaeological  material  than  had  been  furnished  in  the  early 
years  of  the  century  by  the  travels  of  Dodwell,  Gell,  and  Leake. 

After  the  publication  of  the  Antiquities  of  Ionia,  there  was  for 
a  time  little  archaeological  investigation  in  Asia  Minor.  In  1833- 

1837    Charles   Texier    made   drawings  and  plans  of 

.,..,.  Asia  Minor 

many  ancient  cities  and  buildings,  among  them  the 

Doric  temple  at  Assos,  a  site  which  was  afterwards  (1881-1883) 
completely  excavated  by  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  America. 
Most  of  the  very  archaic  reliefs  from  this  temple  are  now  in  the 
Louvre,  the  rest  in  Boston  and  Constantinople.  A  second  French 
expedition  under  Philippe  Lebas,  in  1843-1844,  produced  no 
striking  results.  In  1838  Charles  Fellows  travelled  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  again  in  1839  and  1840,  this  time  accompanied  by 
the  draughtsman  Scharf.  The  drawings  and  descriptions  pub- 
lished by  Fellows  in  two  books,  Asia  Minor  and  Lycia,  aroused 
so  much  interest  that  in  1842  an  expedition  was  sent  out  which 
brought  the  reliefs  of  the  "  Harpy  Tomb "  and  the  "  Nereid 
Monument"  to  England.  Another  expedition  followed  in  1843- 
1844,  and  now  the  Lycian  Room  of  the  British  Museum  was 
inferior  in  interest  only  to  the  Elgin  Room. 

But  the  British  Museum  was  soon  enriched  by  even  more  im- 
portant treasures  from  Asia  Minor.  In  1846,  through  Sir  Strat- 
ford Canning,  then  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  The  Mauso- 
twelve  slabs  of  the  Amazon  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum,  leum 
which  had  been  built  into  the  walls  of  the  fortress  at  Budrum, 
were  brought  to  England.1  Charles  Thomas  (afterwards  Sir 
Charles)  Newton  conceived  the  plan  of  excavating  on  the  site  of 
the  Mausoleum,  and  in  1857  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  carrying 
out  his  plan  and  transferring  to  London  all  the  existing  sculptured 
remains  of  the  building.  The  next  year  Newton  excavated  the 
ancient  city  of  Cnidus  and  brought  to  the  British  Museum  the 

1  A  few  fragments  found  somewhat  later  in  Rhodes  and  Constantinople  and 
a  slab  which  had  been  in  private  possession  in  Genoa  were  afterwards  ac- 
quired by  the  Museum. 


20  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Demeter  of  Cnidus,  a  colossal  lion  from  the  monument  erected  in 
commemoration  of  the  victory  gained  by  Conon  in  394  B.C.,  and 
the  series  of  seated  statues  from  the  sacred  way  that  led  from  the 
harbor  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  near  Miletus.  Not  many  years 
later,  the  architect  Pullan,  while  investigating  various  temples 
in  Asia  Minor,  discovered  a  series  of  late  reliefs  from  an  altar 
at  Priene,  which  were  added  to  the  British  Museum,  and  in  1874 
another  architect,  J.  T.  Wood,  after  years  of  toil,  brought  to  the 
Museum  the  sculptured  drums  and  various  other  remains  of  the 
temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus. 

Among  other  discoveries  of  about  the  same  period  should  be 
mentioned  the  archaic  reliefs  of  the  gravestone  of  Philis  and  an 
altar  to  Apollo  and  the  Nymphs  at  Thasos,  discovered  by  the 
French  investigator,  E.  Miller,  and  now  in  the  Louvre.  The 
Macedonian  expedition  under  L6on  Heuzey  also  led  to  some 
interesting  results. 

The  discoveries  thus  far  mentioned  have  to  do  chiefly  with 
architecture  and  sculpture.  Of  Greek  painting  and  its  develop- 
ment little  was  known.  To  be  sure,  paintings  had  been  found  at 
Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,1  but  they  were  regarded  as  Roman 
works,  as  indeed  they  are,  so  far  as  their  actual  execution  is 
concerned,  and  the  Greek  origin  of  their  designs  was  not  recog- 
nized. Greek  vases,  too,  had  been  known  since  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  they  were  studied  chiefly  with  a 
Greek  vases  view  to  mystical  interpretations  of  their  designs.  The 
and  painting  discovery,  in  1827,  first  at  Corneto,  then  at  Chiusi, 
Veii,  Cervetri,  and  Orvieto,  of  Etruscan  tombs  with  painted  walls, 
was  speedily  followed  by  general  recognition  of  the  fact  that  these 
paintings  were  Etruscan  imitations  of  Greek  originals,  and  that 

1  The  excavations  at  Herculaneum  were  continued  only  a  short  time  after 
the  discovery  of  the  site.  At  Pompeii  they  were  carried  on  in  more  or  less 
desultory  fashion,  with  intermissions,  until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  with  more  energy  under  the  short-lived  Republic  of  Parthenope,  and 
in  the  reigns  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  of  Murat,  whose  wife,  Queen  Caro- 
line, was  especially  interested  in  them. 


INTRODUCTION  21 

in  them  the  progress  of  Greek  painting  could  be  traced.  The 
discovery  at  Vulci,  in  1828,  of  graves  containing  painted  vases, 
led  to  further  discoveries  of  the  same  kind,  and  the  importance 
of  the  vases  was  clearly  set  forth  in  1831  by  Eduard  Gerhard, 
who  had  already  made  Etruscan  ash-urns  and  mirrors  the  objects 
of  careful  study.  Gerhard  was  one  of  the  founders1  of  the 
htituto  di  corrispondenza  archeologica,  which  was  for  many  years, 
under  the  direction  of  Gerhard,  Emil  Braun,  and  Heinrich  Brunn, 
the  chief  centre  of  archaeological  studies,  and  has  been,  since  1885, 
the  Roman  division  of  the  Imperial  German  Archaeological  Insti- 
tute. Gerhard  called  attention  to  the  workmanship  of  the  vases, 
which  shows  the  excellence  of  Greek  handicraft,  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  representations  on  them,  which  portray  myths  that 
literature  has  either  not  recorded  at  all  or  has  recorded  in  differ- 
ent versions,  and  to  the  chronological  development  of  the  style 
of  decoration.  He  recognized  an  earliest  "orientalizing"  class, 
a  class  with  black  figures  on  a  red  ground,  a  class  with  red  figures 
on  a  black  ground,  and  (in  Lower  Italy)  a  class  with  picturesque 
polychrome  paintings,  which  is  a  development  from  the  class  with 
red  figures.  This  classification  still  holds,  though  earlier  classes 
than  "  orientalizing  "  vases  are  now  known,  and  Gerhard's  views  have 
been  modified  in  important  details.  The  Greek  origin  of  Ger- 
hard's first  three  classes  was  proved  in  1837,  by  Gustav  Kramer, 
who  ascribed  most  of  the  "  orientalizing  "  vases  to  the  Corinthians 
and  the  others  to  Athens.  In  1854  Otto  Jahn  ascribed  the 
picturesque  polychrome  vases  to  Lower  Italy  and  determined  the 
chronology  of  the  classes  as  well  as  was  possible  at  that  time. 

Vase  paintings  are  small  works  of  industrial  art,  and  in  them 
the  progress  of  painting  can  be  traced,  to  be  sure,  but  the  appear- 
ance of  real  paintings  can  be  imagined  with  their  aid  only  as  that 

1  The  others  were  Bunsen,  Kestner,  Carlo  Fea,  and  Thorwaldsen.  The 
Institute  was  founded  under  the  protectorate  of  Prince  Friedrich  Wilhelm  of 
Prussia,  on  Winckelmann's  birthday,  December  9,  1828,  and  held  its  first 
open  meeting  on  the  traditional  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  Rome,  April 
21,  1829. 


22  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  modern  paintings  might  be  imagined  without  other  aid  than 
that  of  woodcuts.  The  discovery,  in  1831,  in  the  casa  del  fauna 
at  Pompeii,  of  the  superb  mosaic  that  represents  the  victory  of 
Alexander  over  Darius,  made  a  great  Greek  historical  painting 
known  in  a  completely  colored  and  carefully  executed  ancient  re- 
production. This  mosaic  supplemented  in  a  most  welcome  manner 
the  paintings  on  the  walls  of  Etruscan  tombs,  the  designs  on  vases, 
and  the  pictures  that  adorned  the  houses  of  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii.  The  knowledge  of  Greek  painting  was  further  increased 
in  1844,  when  Alessandro  Francois  discovered  the  famous  "  Fran- 
cois vase"  in  a  grave  near  Chiusi;  in  1848,  when  pictures  repre- 
senting the  adventures  of  Odysseus  were  discovered  in  a  house  on 
the  Esquiline  in  Rome ;  and  in  1857,  when  Francois  and  Noel  des 
Vergers  discovered  at  Vulci  the  grotta  Francois,  the  walls  of  which 
are  decorated  with  parallel  scenes  of  Greek  and  Etruscan  legend. 

Pompeii,  and  more  especially  Herculaneum,  had  made  known 
the  excellence  of  late  Greek  handicraft  in  the  manufacture  of 
household  utensils  and  the  like,  especially  of  bronze  pieces ;  the 
Etruscan  graves  had  delivered  up  countless  specimens  of  the 
Greek  potters'  handicraft;  and  in  1836,  in  a  tomb  near  Cervetri, 
called  the  Regulini-Galassi  tomb,  from  the  names  of  its  discov- 
erers, a  rich  treasure  of  early  metal  work  in  bronze, 
silver,  and  gold  was  brought  to  light,  which  was 
for  a  long  time  the  chief  source  of  knowledge  concerning  early 
work  of  that  kind  and  was  generally  believed  to  exemplify  the 
art  of  the  Homeric  period,  until  Schliemann's  discoveries  brought 
new  knowledge  and  new  theories. 

In  southern  Russia,  especially  the  Crimea,  great  quantities  of 
gold  ornaments  were  found  in  graves  of  native  rulers.  The  first 
discovery  was  made  in  1830  at  Kul  Oba,  the  richest  in  1862-1863 
at  Nicopolis.  The  numerous  Attic  vases  found  in  the  Crimea 
show  active  trade  relations  with  Athens,  and  it  becomes  virtually 
certain  that  many  of  the  objects  of  gold  are  Attic  work.  They 
are  now  the  chief  pride  of  the  Department  of  Antiquities  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg. 


INTRODUCTION  23 

The  condition  of  Greek  Archaeology  about  the  year  1870  was, 
then,  as  follows :  The  chief  temples  of  Greece,  southern  Italy, 
and  Sicily,  and  some  of  those  of  Asia  Minor,  had  Condition  in 
been  studied  with  greater  or  less  care,  and  measured  l87° 
drawings  of  them  had  been  published.  Archaic  Greek  sculpture 
was  known  through  the  Apollo  of  Tenea,  the  statues  from  near 
Miletus,  the  metopes  from  Selinus,  the  pediment  groups  from 
Aegina,  and  a  few  other  works ;  the  great  period  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury was  represented  by  the  Elgin  Marbles,  the  frieze  from  Bassae, 
and  the  Lycian  Marbles  in  the  British  Museum ;  and  the  sculp- 
tures of  the  Mausoleum  and  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus 
were  the  chief  original  works  of  the  fourth  century  known.  More- 
over, through  the  descriptions  by  ancient  writers,  and  by  compari- 
son with  the  known  and  accessible  original  works,  many  Roman 
copies  of  Greek  statues  had  been  identified,  among  them  the 
Discobolus  and  the  Marsyas  of  Myron,  the  Doryphorus  and  the 
Diadumenus  (in  1871) of  Polyclitus,  the  Apoxyomenus  of  Lysippus 
(but  see  page  269  f.),  and  the  group  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton 
by  Critius  and  Nesiotes.  The  use  of  color  in  Greek  architecture 
and  sculpture  was  more  or  less  generally  acknowledged.  The  im- 
portance of  Greek  vases  and  vase  paintings  was  clearly  recognized, 
and  their  chronology  was  in  part  already  determined.  Something 
was  known,  through  vase  paintings,  the  paintings  of  Etruscan 
tombs,  the  decorations  of  houses  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum, 
and  the  great  mosaic  from  Pompeii,  of  Greek  painting  and  its 
development.  The  study  of  coins  and  gems  had  never  entirely 
ceased  since  the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  though  there  had  been 
additions  of  material  rather  than  any  notable  advance  of  knowl- 
edge in  recent  years.  Much  progress  had  been  made  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  meaning  of  ancient  works  of  art,  especially 
of  vase  paintings.  Important  discoveries  in  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor,  in  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Egypt,  and  other  regions  had  brought 
forward  and,  in  a  few  cases  perhaps,  answered  questions  concern- 
ing the  relations  of  Greek  art  to  the  art  of  other  countries.  The 
Istituto  di  corrispondenza  archeologicat  which  had  been  founded 


24  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

as  an  international  undertaking,  was  now  almost  entirely  German, 
though  scholars  of  other  nations,  especially  Italians,  took  part  in 
its  meetings.  In  the  publications  of  the  Istituto,  Annali,  Bul- 
lettino,  and  Monumenti,  many  monuments  of  ancient  art  were 
published  and  discussed.  The  study  of  archaeology  was  encour- 
aged and  supported  by  the  Ecole  franc,aise  at  Athens  by  the 
French  Academic  ties  Inscriptions  in  Paris,  the  Academies  of 
Sciences  in  the  various  states  of  Germany,  the  Society  of  Dilet- 
tanti in  England,  and  other  less  distinguished  literary  and  scien- 
tific bodies.  The  great  museums,  such  as  the  British  Museum,  the 
Louvre,  the  Hermitage,  the  museums  at  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Dresden, 
not  to  speak  of  the  old  Italian  collections,  made  the  study  of  ancient 
art  possible  and  more  or  less  convenient,  while  their  curators  and 
other  officers  had  exceptional  opportunities  for  productive  study. 
Good  catalogues  of  many  collections  had  already  been  made.  In 
Germany  systematic  instruction  in  archaeology  was  given  in  most, 
if  not  all,  universities,  usually  supplemented  by  collections  of 
casts,  vases,  and  other  illustrative  material.  Except  in  Germany 
systematic  instruction  was  hardly  to  be  found,  and  even  there, 
archaeology  was  regarded  as  a  handmaid  of  philology. 

In  the  last  three  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  great 
changes  took  place.  Before  1870,  many  excavations  had  been 
Changes  carried  on,  but  as  yet  almost  always  with  the  purpose 
since  1870  of  studying  some  particular  building  or  of  obtaining 
portable  objects  for  some  museum.  Hardly  anywhere  except  at 
Pompeii,  and  there  only  imperfectly,  had  the  attempt  been  made 
to  bring  to  light  systematically  an  ancient  city  or  a  large  group  of 
related  buildings.  Since  1870  many  excavations  have  been  under- 
taken with  a  view  to  laying  bare  whole  sites  —  great  sanctuaries, 
such  as  Olympia  and  Delphi,  or  cities,  such  as  Ephesus  and  Mile- 
tus —  though  smaller  excavations  have  been  both  numerous  and 
productive.  In  1870  virtually  nothing  was  known  of  the  great 
and  brilliant  civilization  which  existed  in  Greece  and  the  neigh- 
boring regions  before  the  "Dorian  Invasion,"  but  since  1871  the 
knowledge  of  that  Prehellenic  civilization  has  increased  almost 


INTRODUCTION  25 

daily.  In  1870  Greek  art  and  Greek  life  between  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great  and  that  of  Augustus  were  little  known 
(though  in  that  very  year  Brunn  recognized  the  copies  of  figures 
from  the  gift  of  Attalus  to  Athens),  and  this  period  also  has  since 
that  time  been  made  familiar  by  the  work  of  the  excavator. 
Moreover,  such  works  of  sculpture  as  the  pediment  figures  and 
the  Hermes  of  Olympia,  the  bronze  charioteer  of  Delphi,  and  the 
archaic  reliefs  and  figures  found  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  to 
mention  only  a  few,  and  such  buildings  as  the  Heraeum  at  Olym- 
pia and  the  Tholos  at  Epidaurus  have  given  a  new  precision  and 
a  new  breadth  to  the  study  of  classical  Greek  sculpture  and 
architecture,  while  the  chronology  of  Greek  vases,  and  with  them 
that  of  Greek  painting,  has  been  revolutionized.  The  study  of 
Greek  terracotta  figurines  begins  with  the  first  discoveries  at 
Tanagra  in  1870. 

The  great  undertakings  of  the  last  few  decades  have  been  aided 
by  political  events,  by  the  general  increase  in  wealth,  and  the 
greater  ease  and  rapidity  of  travel,  but  also  by  changes  and 
progress  in  the  organization  of  archaeological  work.  The  Isti- 
tuto  di  corrispondenza  archeologica,  after  having  been  _ 
since  1871  a  Prussian  institution,  became  in  1874  the  of  archaeo- 
Kaiserlich  deutsches  archaologisches  Institut,  when  logical  work 
the  German  Institute  at  Athens  was  founded.  Since  its  reorgani- 
zation in  1885,  the  Institut  is  managed  by  a  central  board  in 
Berlin,  while  the  branches  at  Athens  and  Rome  are  directed  each 
by  its  own  Secretary.  The  Archaeological  Institute  of  America 
was  founded  in  1879,  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies 
at  Athens,  founded  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institute,  began  its 
work  in  1882,  and  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  in 
Rome  was  founded  in  1895.  In  England  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies  was  founded  in  1879,  and  the 
British  Schools  at  Athens  and  at  Rome  were  opened  in  1885  and 
1900  respectively.  France  had  a  school  at  Athens  (1846)  and 
founded  one  at  Rome  in  1874.  The  Austrian  Archaeological 
Institute,  created  in  1898,  with  headquarters  in  Vienna,  established 


26  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

an  Athenian  branch,  similar  in  some  respects  to  that  of  the  German 
Institute.  In  Italy  the  Accademia  del  Lincei  encourages  and  sup- 
ports archaeological  investigations,  and  in  France  the  publica- 
tion of  works  of  ancient  art  is  aided  by  the  Fondation  Plot.  In 
France,  England,  and  the  United  States  systematic  instruction 
in  archaeology  is  now  given  at  the  great  universities.  Everywhere 
old  museums  have  been  reorganized  and  enlarged  and  new  ones 
founded.  Among  the  new  foundations  the  museums  at  Athens, 
Olympia,  and  Delphi,  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York,  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston,  the  Imperial  Ottoman  Museum 
at  Constantinople,  and  the  Glyptothek  Ny-Carlsberg  at  Copen- 
hagen are  most  important. 

Perhaps  no  single  agency  has  done  more  to  facilitate  archaeo- 
logical work  in  the  field,  the  publication  of  new  discoveries,  the 
intensive  study  of  monuments  already  known,  and  the  giving  of 

Photoe-      systematic  instruction  than  the  development  of  pho- 

raphy  tography  and  the  allied  methods  of  accurate  and 
inexpensive  reproduction.  By  the  aid  of  photography  the  archae- 
ologist of  to-day  commands  a  more  accurate  acquaintance  with 
the  entire  field  than  was  attainable  without  its  aid  when  the  entire 
field  was  vastly  less  extensive  than  it  now  is. 

So  numerous  and  so  great  have  been  the  excavations,  so  rapid 
the  advance  of  knowledge,  so  many  the  new  problems  (some  of 
them  still  unsolved)  which  have  changed,  enriched,  and  in- 
vigorated Greek  archaeology  since  1870,  that  anything  more  than 
a  brief  statement  of  the  leading  facts  would  be  impossible  within 
the  limits  of  this  chapter. 

The  first  excavation  of  an  entire  series  of  buildings  was  in  1873 
and  1875,  when  two  Austrian  expeditions  under  the  direction  of 
Alexander  Conze  excavated  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Cabiri  at  Samothrace.  The  forms  and  arrangement 
of  the  edifices  here  brought  to  light  disclosed  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  Hellenistic  architectural  design,  which  had  previously  been 
known  only  through  Pompeian  paintings.  An  incidental  gain 
was  the  discovery  of  the  base  of  the  great  statue  of  Nike  (which 


INTRODUCTION  27 

had  been  in  the  Louvre  since  1863),  with  the  result  that  Benn- 
dorf  was  led  to  recognize  on  coins  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  a 
reproduction  of  the  statue  and  thereby  to  determine  its  date. 
The  results  of  these  excavations  were  published  in  the  first 
great  archaeological  work  in  which  photographs  are  included. 

Twenty  years  passed  before  a  second  great  excavation  of  a  Greek 
site  was  conducted  under  Austrian  leadership,  though  Austrian 
archaeologists  were  active  in  other  fields,  and  in  1882  an  expedition 
to  Lycia  and  Caria  under  Benndorf,  Niemann,  and  Petersen  se- 
cured for  the  Imperial  Museum  at  Vienna  the  reliefs  of  Gjolbaschi 
(Trysa),  which  exhibit  so  clearly  the  spread  of  Attic  art  and  the 
influence  of  painting  upon  decorative  sculpture.  In  1895  the 
Austrian  excavations  at  Ephesus  began,  to  be  con- 
tinued for  ten  years.  The  remains  of  the  great  Hel- 
lenistic and  Roman  city  were  laid  bare,  the  general  topography 
and  history  of  the  place  were  carefully  studied,  and  many  interest- 
ing discoveries  were  made,  among  them  that  of  a  beautiful  bronze 
statue.  The  inscriptions  found  here  are  of  great  historical  in- 
terest, and  various  previously  unknown  facts  concerning  archi- 
tecture and  the  arrangement  of  buildings  in  Hellenistic  and 
Roman  times  were  established. 

Far  more  ambitious  than  the  work  at  Samothrace  was  the 
excavation  of  Olympia  by  the  German  Empire  in  1875-1880. 
The  moving  spirit  of  this  great  undertaking  was 
Ernst  Curtius,  but  in  the  work  itself  and  in  its  publi- 
cation many  others  took  part,  among  them  Adler,  Dorpfeld, 
Furtwangler,  Hirschfeld,  and  Treu.  The  entire  Altis  or  sacred 
precinct  and  the  adjacent  buildings  were  laid  bare,  and  the  imme- 
diate surroundings  were  carefully  investigated.  In  the  small 
bronzes,  terracottas,  vases,  sculptures,  and  buildings,  the  art  of 
all  periods  from  the  "  Dorian  Invasion  "  to  Byzantine  times  can 
be  traced.  The  Heraeum  threw  unexpected  light  upon  the  early 
stages  of  the  Doric  style,  the  sculptures  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  and 
the  Nike  of  Paeonius  offered  new  information  and  new  problems 
concerning  the  sculpture  of  the  fifth  century,  and  in  the  Hermes 


28  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  Praxiteles  an  original  work  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  Greek 
sculptors  was  restored  to  the  world.  These  are  only  some  of  the 
most  striking  results  of  the  first  systematic  excavation  of  a  really 
extensive  and  important  centre  of  Greek  life. 

In  1878,  while  the  work  at  Olympia  was  in  progress,  excavations 
were  begun  by  the  Berlin  Museum  at  Pergamon,  where  Karl  Hu- 
mann  had  discovered  traces  of  the  great  altar.  The 
object  of  the  work  was  primarily  to  enrich  the  Museum, 
an  object  which  was  completely  accomplished  by  the  transportation 
to  Berlin  of  the  sculptures  of  the  great  altar  and  many  other  works ; 
but  in  the  course  of  the  excavations,  —  from  1878  to  1886,  —  the 
entire  citadel  and  some  adjacent  parts  of  the  city  were  laid  bare. 
In  1900  the  excavations  were  resumed  and  are  still  unfinished, 
their  present  object  being  to  gain  as  much  knowledge  as  possible 
of  the  great  and  splendid  city.  Besides  the  great  altar,  the  temples, 
and  other  buildings  on  the  acropolis,  porticoes,  gateways,  gymna- 
sia, a  theatre,  an  amphitheatre,  houses,  tombs,  and  waterworks  have 
been  excavated  and  investigated.  Many  works  of  sculpture  have 
been  found,  and  here,  as  at  nearly  all  the  extensive  sites  excavated 
in  recent  years,  great  numbers  of  inscriptions  have  come  to  light. 
No  other  single  site  has  added  so  much  to  our  knowledge  of  Hel- 
lenistic civilization. 

Several  other  great  excavations  have  been  carried  on  by  Ger- 
mans, in  addition  to  many  lesser  works.  In  1887  and  1888,  at  the 
Other  Ger-  sanctuary  of  the  Cabiri,  in  Boeotia,  an  entirely  new 
man  excava-  variety  of  painted  vases  was  found,  and  new  light  was 
thrown  upon  a  little  known  cult.  In  1890  Hiller  von 
Gaertringen  excavated  in  the  theatre  at  Magnesia  on  the  Meander, 
and  this  led  (1891-1893)  to  extensive  and  systematic  excavation 
of  the  city  by  the  Berlin  Museum.  The  city  of  Priene  was  also 
excavated  by  the  Berlin  Museum  (1805-1899),  with  the  result 
that  the  plan  and  architecture  of  a  Hellenistic  city  were  more  com- 
pletely brought  to  light  than  ever  before.  In  1899  the  Museum 
undertook  the  even  greater  task  of  excavating  the  remains  of  the 
great  city  of  Miletus,  a  task  which  is  not  yet  (1909)  completed. 


INTRODUCTION  29 

Here,  as  at  Ephesus,  Magnesia,  Priene,  and  Pergamon,  the  ex- 
cavations have  revealed  chiefly  the  city  of  late  periods,  with  but  few 
remains  of  early  Ionic  art.  Other  important  German  excavations 
are  those  at  Thera  (1896-1901),  carried  on  at  his  own  expense 
by  Hiller  von  Gaertringen,  which  furnished  new  and  valuable  in- 
formation concerning  nearly  all  periods  of  Greek  civilization,  and 
those  at  the  sanctuary  of  Asclepius  at  Cos,  under  the  leadership  of 
R.  Herzog.  The  important  excavations  carried  on  at  Athens  near 
the  northwest  foot  of  the  Acropolis,  which  laid  bare  an  interesting 
quarter  of  the  ancient  city  and  made  clear  the  Athenian  system  of 
water  supply,  were  conducted  by  W.  Dorpfeld,  head  of  the  German 
Institute  at  Athens,  and  many  less  extensive  excavations  in  and  near 
Athens  are  also  the  work  of  the  German  Institute.  The  Bavarian 
excavations  carried  on  by  A.  Furtwangler  at  Aegina  have  led  to 
a  more  complete  understanding  of  the  famous  sculptures  of  the 
temple,  as  well  as  to  new  views  of  the  development  of  pedimental 
composition. 

The  first  excavations  undertaken  with  the  intention  of  laying 
bare  and  studying  an  entire  ancient  city  were  those  of  the  Archae- 
ological Institute  of  America  at  Assos  (1881-1883).   American 
The  archaic  temple  on  the  acropolis  was  for  the  first  excavations, 
time  accurately  measured,  the  much  later  city  walls,   Assos 
market   buildings,    baths,  and   other  structures  were  excavated, 
photographed,  and  drawn.     Unfortunately  an  adequate  publication 
has  been  long  delayed,  and  is  only  now  in  process  of" comple- 
tion by  F.  H.  Bacon. 

In  1892  and  1893  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  at 
Athens,  aided  by  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  America,  exca- 
vated at  the  Argive  Heraeum.     The  continuous  occu-   Tne  Ar  ive 
pation  of  this  site  from  the  earliest  prehistoric  epoch   Heraeum. 
to  Byzantine   times   makes   it   peculiarly  interesting.   Cormth 
The   scanty    vestiges   of    the    early   temple,   the   more   satisfac- 
tory, though   still   incomplete,    remains   of    the    temple    of    the 
fifth  century,  with  important  fragments  of  its  sculptures,  and  the 
foundations  and  other  existing  portions  of  several  buildings  per- 


30  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

taining  to  the  famous  sanctuary  were  uncovered  and  carefully 
studied.  Many  more  or  less  primitive  bronze  fibulae,  pins,  and 
the  like,  fragments  of  pottery,  and  primitive  terracottas  added  new 
material  for  the  study  of  early  ages  in  Greece.  The  second  ex- 
tensive work  of  excavation  undertaken  by  the  American  School  at 
Athens  is  at  Corinth,  where  active  work  has  been  carried  on 
nearly  every  spring  and  summer  since  1896.  Important  results 
have  been  achieved  in  determining  topographical  points  and  the 
levels  of  different  strata  of  occupation ;  the  peculiarly  interest- 
ing ancient  system  of  water  supply  has  been  in  part  made  clear, 
and  some  interesting  architectural  novelties  have  come  to  light. 
Smaller  excavations  have  been  carried  on  by  the  School  at  Plataea, 
Icaria,  Thoricus,  Sicyon,  Eretria,  Sparta,  Oeniadae,  and  the  Cave 
of  Vari,  all  with  results  of  more  or  less  importance. 

At  Delos,  the  sacred  birthplace  of  Apollo  and  Artemis,  the 
centre  of  the  Delian  Confederacy,  and  at  one  time  the  chief  com- 
mercial port  of  the  Aegean,  excavations  were  begun 
in  1877  by  the  French  School  at  Athens  and  con- 
tinued at  intervals  until  1894.  Since  1902  they  are  again  in 
progress,  and  are  now  more  systematically  conducted.  Already 
the  temple  of  Apollo  and  many  other  buildings,  including  ware- 
houses, temples,  places  of  meeting,  and  many  houses  of  Hel- 
lenistic and  Roman  times,  have  been  excavated,  and  many 
important  works  of  art  have  been  found.  Among  these  are  the 
primitive  statue  dedicated  byNicandra,  the  Nike  of  Archermus(P), 
several  draped  figures  of  the  Chian  school,  an  admirable  copy  of 
the  Diadumenus  of  Polyclitus,  several  mosaics,  and  numerous 
coins. 

At    Delphi,   as   at   Olympia,   the    excavators   were  guided   in 

their  work  and  aided   in  the  interpretation  of  their  discoveries 

by  the  detailed    description  of  Pausanias.     Between 

1893   and    1901    the   French   excavators  cleared  the 

entire  sacred  precinct  of  the   Pythian  Apollo,  as  well  as  some 

neighboring  territory.     They  made  known  the  bronze  charioteer, 

the  Agias  of   Lysippus,  the    treasuries    or   communal  houses  of 


INTRODUCTION  31 

the  Athenians,  Cnidians,  and  Siphnians,  with  their  important 
sculptures,  and  many  other  buildings  and  monuments  that  were 
grouped  about  the  temple ;  and  the  temple  itself  is  now  known 
to  have  been  rebuilt  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  Lesser  French 
excavations  were  carried  on  in  1885  and  1886  at  the  temple 
of  Apollo  Ptoi'os,  in  Boeotia,  where  a  series  of  archaic  nude 
male  figures  came  to  light;  in  1887  and  1888  at  Mantinea, 
where  reliefs  attributed  to  Praxiteles  were  found ;  and  twice  at 
Tegea,  where  in  1888  and  1889  the  agora  and  other  parts  of 
the  town  were  located,  and  in  1900  and  1901  fragments  of  the 
sculptures  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea  were  added  to  those 
discovered  by  a  peasant  in  1880. 

The  Greek  Archaeological  Society,  which  in  its  earlier  years 
had  almost  entirely  refrained  from  general  activity  in  the  field, 
was  remarkably  active  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  The  Qreek 
nineteenth  century.  In  1876  the  sanctuary  of  Ascle-  Archaeologi- 
pius  at  Athens  was  excavated,  and  in  1881  the  ~al.?°"ety' 
excavation  of  the  great  sanctuary  of  the  same  god  Eleusis, 
at  Epidaurus  was  begun.  The  work  has  not  been  con-  Athens> etc- 
tinuous,  and  is  not  yet  entirely  completed,  but  important  results 
have  been  attained.  One  of  the  greatest  Greek  sanctuaries  of 
the  fourth  century  B.C.  and  the  succeeding  periods  —  a  sanctuary 
which  was  at  the  same  time  a  fashionable  health  resort — has 
been  made  known,  many  important  works  of  sculpture  have 
been  found,  and  interesting  architectural  features  have  helped  to 
make  Epidaurus  one  of  the  most  important  sites  in  Greece.  At 
Eleusis  excavations  carried  on  from  1882  to  1890  laid  bare  the 
famous  sanctuary  with  its  enigmatical  Hall  of  the  Mysteries,  its 
temples,  and  its  propylaea;  at  the  far  less  famous,  though  still 
important,  sanctuary  of  Atnphiaraus,  near  Oropus,  excavations 
were  carried  on  in  1884,  1886,  1887,  and  1906;  the  excavation 
of  the  temple  of  Despoena,  at  Lycosoura,  where  fragments  of  the 
statues  by  Damophon  were  found,  took  place  in  1889,  and  for 
three  years  (1897-1899)  work  was  carried  on  at  Thermus,  in 
Aetolia,  where  an  ancient  temple,  which  once  had  painted  metopes 


32  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

and  was  divided  by  a  single  row  of  columns  in  the  interior,  was 
discovered.  The  Society  has  also  carried  on  many  smaller  exca- 
vations, and  cares  for  the  preservation  of  ancient  monuments. 
But  its  most  important  achievement  was  the  complete  excavation 
of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  (1885-1891).  This  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  ancient  temple  beside  the  Erechtheum,  of  re- 
mains of  a  prehistoric  palace,  of  the  hidden  approaches  to  the 
citadel,  of  remains  of  several  temples,  and  of  many  works  of  sculp- 
ture, which  made  Greek  art,  especially  Attic  art,  of  the  sixth 
century  known  for  the  first  time.  Moreover,  the  numerous  frag- 
ments of  pottery  found  in  the  debris  which  was  used  as  filling 
material  after  the  departure  of  the  Persians  in  479  B.C.,  are  mani- 
festly earlier  than  the  Persian  invasion,  and  since  among  these  are 
many  fragments  of  red-figured  ware,  the  date  of  such  ware,  and 
consequently  of  the  black-figured  vases  which  preceded  it,  was 
seen  to  be  much  earlier  than  had  previously  been  supposed.  The 
history  of  Greek  vase  painting,  and  therefore  of  Greek  painting  in 
general,  was  thus  put  on  a  new  chronological  basis. 

The  excavations  at  Megalopolis  (1890-1891)  and  at  Sparta 
(begun  in  1906),  by  the  British  School  at  Athens,  and  the  Danish 
Megalopolis,  excavations  at  Lindus,  in  Rhodes  (1902-1904),  should 
Lindus  also  be  mentioned  among  the  important  works  of 

large  scope  which  have  contributed  to  make  not  only  the  art,  but 
the  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  familiar  and  comprehensible  as  never 
before  since  the  end  of  the  ancient  civilization. 

It  would  be  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this  chapter  to 
enumerate  all  the  monuments  of  Greek  sculpture  which  have  been 
discovered  since  1870.  Some  have  already  been  mentioned  in 
connection  with  various  excavations,  but  two  detached  discoveries 
should  at  any  rate  not  be  omitted,  even  in  a  rapid  summary :  the 
Sidon  Ceri-  superb  sarcophagi  found  at  Sidon  in  1887  (see  page 
gotto  274)  and  the  remains  of  the  cargo  of  a  ship  which  was 

sunk  in  ancient  times  off  Cerigotto  (Anticythera),  not  far  from 
Cythera.  The  ship  contained  numerous  works  of  sculpture,  some 
of  which  were  found  in  1900.  All  were  much  injured  by  long 


INTRODUCTION  33 

continued  action  of  salt  water,  but  a  fine  bronze  statue  (page  267) 
has  been  successfully  restored. 

The  discoveries  mentioned  up  to  this  point  have  made  the 
arrangement  of  Greek  cities,  especially  in  Hellenistic  times,  and  of 
Greek  sanctuaries  known;  they  have  at  the  same  time  added 
greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  Greek  architecture,  not  Ar  h.. 
only  in  the  classical  period,  but  also  before  and  after  and  sculp- 
that  time,  thus  making  a  history  of  its  development  ture 
possible.  The  numerous  works  of  sculpture  unearthed  have 
greatly  increased  the  material  available  for  study,  not  only  by  the 
addition  of  virtually  new  classes,  such  as  the  works  of  the  sixth 
century  and  of  the  Pergamene  school,  but  also  by  the  increase  in 
the  number  of  works  of  all  periods.  It  has  thus  become  possible 
to  distinguish  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  the  individuality  of 
certain  sculptors,  such  as  Phidias,  Polyclitus,  Scopas,  Praxiteles, 
and  Lysippus,  and  even  to  trace  their  development.  History  and 
topography  have  gained  greatly,  especially  by  reason  of  the  in- 
scriptions discovered,  and  vast  numbers  of  lesser  objects,  such  as 
bronzes,  terracottas,  and  pottery,  have  helped  to  complete  the 
record  of  Greek  civilization.  So  far  as  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture are  concerned,  the  chief  elements  of  the  progress  made 
since  1870  have  been  mentioned. 

In  the  same  period  the  knowledge  of  Greek  painting  has  also 
advanced.  In  1870  Conze,  who  had  published  the  first  examples 
of  "Melian"  vases  in  1862,  added  the  geometric  Painting  and 
style  to  the  classes  of  vases  previously  established,  and  vases 
the  discovery  of  the  Dipylon  vases  in  1871  made  the  most  strik- 
ing features  of  a  style  that  preceded  that  of  the  Corinthian  vases 
familiar.  In  1879,  by  the  publication  of  Klein's  Euphronios,  the 
first  important  and  systematic  attempt  to  differentiate  from  his 
fellow-workers  one  of  the  most  gifted  of  Attic  vase  painters  and 
to  establish  his  position  in  the  history  of  painting,  the  study  of 
vase  painting  entered  upon  a  new  stage.  In  1882  Robert  rec- 
ognized in  an  important  class  of  vase  paintings  the  influence  ot 
Polygnotus,  thereby  making  the  close  connection  between  the 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  3 


34  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

humble  art  of  the  vase  painter  and  the  great  art  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury clear  beyond  question.  The  discovery  of  the  Clazomenian 
sarcophagi  in  1883,  followed  by  that  of  interesting  and  evidently 
non-Attic  vases  at  Naukratis  (1884-1886)  and  Daphnae  (1888) 
in  Egypt,  made  the  influence  of  Ionic  art  upon  that  of  all  Greece 
evident  and  led  to  new  views  concerning  the  development  of 
design  and  the  use  of  colors  in  early  times.  Boehlau's  investiga- 
tions (1894)  in  the  cemeteries  of  Samos  added  precision  to  the 
knowledge  of  Ionic  art  and  designated  Miletus  as  the  centre  of 
manufacture  of  vases  previously  regarded  as  Rhodian  or  assigned 
to  other  places.  The  excavation  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens 
(1885-1891)  fixed  the  chronology  of  Attic  vases.  Thus  the 
foundation  has  been  laid  for  accurate  knowledge  of  the  develop- 
ment of  vase  painting  —  and  with  it  of  monumental  painting — 
in  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries  B.C.,  and  painted  stelae,  especially 
those  found  in  1907  at  Pagasae,  reflect  the  great  art  of  the  third 
and  second  centuries.  The  late  paintings,  at  Pompeii  and 
elsewhere,  have  also  been  assigned  to  their  proper  historical  place 
since  Helbig,  in  1873,  proved  that  their  origin  is  Hellenistic.  In 
1878  the  discovery  of  a  villa  in  the  Farnesina,  at  Rome,  the  walls 
of  which  were  adorned  with  a  great  number  of  frescoes,  added  a 
most  valuable  series  to  the  works  of  this  class  previously  known. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  works  of  the  great  Greek  painters 
are  all  lost,  the  history  of  Greek  painting  can  now  be  sketched 
from  the  sixth  century  to  Roman  times. 

Although  Greek  terracottas  of  various   kinds  have  long  been 
known,  they  awakened  little  interest  until   1870,  when  the  first 

discoveries  of  exquisite  figurines  were  made  atTanagra. 

More  or  less  systematic  excavations  carried  on  there, 
especially  from  1870  to  1874,  brought  to  light  great  numbers  of 
statuettes,  chiefly  delightful  little  works  of  the  fourth  century, 
though  earlier  figurines  were  fairly  numerous.  At  about  the 
same  time  figurines  from  Asia  Minor  began  to  appear,  and  in  the 
necropolis  of  Myrina  (1880-1881)  E.  Pottier  and  S.  Reinach 
brought  them  to  light  in  great  numbers.  Great  general  similarity 


INTRODUCTION  35 

and  at  the  same  time  marked  differences  between  the  figurines 
from  Myrina  and  those  from  Tanagra  were  at  once  observed. 
Terracottas  from  many  sites,  especially  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  the  Cyre- 
naica,  Sicily,  and  southern  Russia,  were  already  known,  and  their 
number  was  increased  by  discoveries  at  many  places,  among  them 
Athens,  Eretria,  and  Priene.  The  German  Archaeological  Insti- 
tute planned  a  great  publication  of  this  material,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  R.  Kekule  v.  Stradonitz.  In  1880  and  1884  terracottas 
from  Sicily  and  Pompeii  were  published  by  Kekule  and  Von 
Rohden  respectively,  and  in  1903  appeared,  in  two  folio  volumes, 
a  catalogue  of  types  (Typenkatalog)  by  F.  Winter,  in  which 
several  thousand  illustrations  exhibit  the  endless  variety  of  Greek 
terracotta  figurines,  their  local  differences,  and  their  historical 
development. 

Prehellenic  Greece  was  first  made  known  to  the  modern  world 
by  Heinrich  Schliemann,  a  remarkable  man,  who,  though  without 

systematic   training  or   scientific  aptitudes,   became, 

....  .  .  Heinrich 

through  his  boundless  enthusiasm,  persistent  energy,    sehiiemann. 

and  marvellous  intuition,  the  founder  of  a  new  branch  Prehellenic 
of  science.  His  first  great  undertaking  was  the  exca- 
vation of  the  Homeric  Troy,  at  Hissarlik,  begun  in  1870,  and  re- 
sumed at  various  times,  the  last  time  with  the  assistance  of 
W.  Dorpfeld,  in  1890.  After  Schliemann's  death,  in  1890,  Dorp- 
feld  excavated  at  Hissarlik  in  1893  and  1894.  The  results  of  the 
work  at  this  site  are  published  in  Troja  und  Ilion  (Athens,  1902), 
by  W.  Dorpfeld.  In  1880  Schliemann  excavated  the  beehive 
tomb  at  Orchomenus,  in  Boeotia,  and  in  1 884  came  his  excavations 
at  Mycenae  and  Tiryns.  At  both  of  these  sites  his  work  was  after- 
wards supplemented  by  that  of  others.  Of  his  less  important  ex- 
cavations it  is  needless  to  speak.  Schliemann  made  his  discoveries 
known  by  prompt,  but  unscientific  publications,  the  chtef  contents 
of  which  were  collected  (in  1890)  in  one  volume,  Schliemann's 
Excavations,  by  Carl  Schuchhardt  (translated  by  Eugenie  Sellers). 
In  1877  ar>d  1880  Prehellenic  tombs  were  discovered  at  Spata 
and  Menidi,  in  Attica;  in  1888  the  tomb  at  Vaphio,  in  Laconia, 


36  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

yielded  the  famous  gold  cups ;  in  1884  Italian  scholars  investigated 
the  grotto  of  Zeus  on  Mt.  Ida,  in  Crete  ;  since  1900  Dr.  Arthur  Evans 
has  been  carrying  on  his  excavation  of  the  vast  palace  and  its  de- 
pendencies, including  tombs,  at  Cnossus,  while  Italian  excavations 
at  Phaestus,  the  excavations  of  the  British  School  at  Palaikastro, 
those  of  Miss  Boyd  (Mrs.  Hawes)  at  Gournia  and  its  neighborhood, 
and  of  Mr.  Seager  at  Pseira  and  Mochlos,  with  other  investigations 
of  lesser  scope,  have  contributed  to  make  it  evident  that  Crete 
was  for  centuries  the  chief  seat  of  a  brilliant  Prehellenic  civiliza- 
tion. Meanwhile  the  excavations  carried  on  (1896-1899)  at 
Phylakopi,  in  Melos,  by  the  British  School  at  Athens,  the  investiga- 
tions of  Tsountas  and  others  in  other  islands  of  the  Aegean, 
and  the  discovery  of  tombs  and  other  remains  not  only  in  the 
Argolid,  but  in  Thessaly,  Boeotia,  and  elsewhere,  have  made  it 
possible  to  trace  the  development  of  civilization  in  Greek  lands 
from  the  neolithic  period  to  the  so-called  Dorian  Invasion.  The 
results  of  these  discoveries  are  summarily  treated  in  the  chapter  on 
Prehellenic  Greece. 

The  work  of  excavation  and  discovery  has  been  accompanied 
and  supplemented  by  that  of  publication,  classification,  and  dis- 
cussion.    Each  great  excavation  has  been,  or  is  to  be, 
Publications    ,  .,          ,  ,  .  .  ,        ,  v       .  ,  ., 

followed  by  an  exhaustive  special  publication,  and  the 

relations  of  newly  discovered  monuments  to  those  previously  known 
are  discussed  in  many  books,  monographs,  and  articles  in  periodi- 
cals. The  museums  publish  catalogues,  often  illustrated,  which 
are  monuments  of  learning  as  well  as  of  industry.  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  German  Institute  and  other  organizations,  great 
collections  of  special  classes  of  monuments  have  been  published 
or  are  in  preparation,  such  as  the  Attische  Grabreliefs  (Conze)  and 
the  Romische  Sarkophagreliefs  (Robert).  S.  Reinach  has  brought 
together  in  handy  volumes  the  contents  of  earlier  expensive  publica- 
tions, with  additions  from  various  sources,  in  his  Repertoire  de  la 
statuaire  grecque  et  romaine  and  his  Repertoire  des  vases  peints grecs 
etetrusques.  The  Denkmaler  griechischer  und  romischer  Sculptur, 
published  by  the  F.  Bruckmann  Company,  in  Munich,  and  other 


INTRODUCTION  37 

great  collections  of  photographic  prints  make  the  study  of  ancient 
monuments  possible  even  to  those  who  have  not  constant  access  to 
great  museums.  Thus  the  material  at  the  command  of  the  archae- 
ologist is  multiplied.  The  Histoire  de  I'art  dans  rantiquite,  by 
Perrot  and  Chipiez  is  a  work  of  groat  learning,  industry,  and  insight, 
in  which  the  attempt  is  made  to  bring  together  and  discuss  virtually 
all  the  important  material  known.  In  the  earlier  volumes  the  art  of 
Egypt,  Chaldaea,  Assyria,  Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  Palestine,  Sardinia, 
and  the  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor  are  treated,  and  Volumes  VI, 
VII,  and  VIII  are  devoted  to  Greek  art  before  its  great  develop- 
ment in  the  fifth  century. 

With  such  means  at  its  disposal  —  original  monuments,  collec- 
tions of  photographs,  general  and  special  publications  —  Greek 
archaeology  has  become  an  organized  science,  taking  its  place 
beside  philology  and  the  study  of  Greek  literature  as  an  equally 
important  element  in  the  reconstruction  of  Greek  antiquity,  and 
beside  the  study  of  the  art  of  the  Renaissance  as  an  equally  im- 
portant division  of  the  study  of  the  history  of  art. 

In  its  main  lines  the  development  of  Greek  art  is  now  known. 
It  remains  to  determine  more  exactly  the  relations  between  the  art 
of  different  centres,  the  personal  qualities  of  individual  artists,  their 
influence  upon  their  contemporaries  and  successors,  and  the 
successive  stages  in  the  development  of  each  master.  Some  work 
in  this  direction  has  already  been  attempted,  notably  by  Furt- 
wangler,  in  his  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture,  but  as  yet  only  a 
beginning  has  been  made,  and  many  corrections  and  additions  are 
needed.  There  is  still  important  work  to  be  done,  in  spite  of  the 
vast  and  rapid  progress  of  the  last  few  decades. 


81190 


PREHELLENIC  GREECE 

GREEK  art  begins  its  rapid  and  wonderful  development  hardly 
earlier  than  700  B.C.  From  about  that  time  continuous  and, 
on  the  whole,  steady  progress  may  be  traced,  and  the  rude  works 
of  the  seventh  century  already  show  something  of  the  qualities 
which  distinguish  Greek  art  from  that  of  other  peoples. 

But  the  art  which  can  thus  be  traced  from  the  seventh  century 
onward  is  not  the  earliest  art  known  on  Greek  soil.  For  many 
centuries  before  the  so-called  Dorian  Invasion  continental  Greece 
and  the  Greek  islands  were  inhabited,  and  many  monuments  of 
the  early  inhabitants  remain.  Whether  the  Prehellenic  inhabit- 
ants of  Greece,  the  islands,  and  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  were 

at  any  time  all  of  one  race  or  related  races,  we  do  not 
Early  inhab- 
itants of      know ;  but  that  at  one  time  there  was  an  important 

Greece  civilization  which  extended  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
this  region  is  certain.  When  fresh  and  vigorous  tribes  came  in 
to  take  possession  of  the  soil,  the  previous  inhabitants  cannot  have 
been  utterly  exterminated,  neither  can  they  all  have  emigrated. 
Most  of  them  doubtless  remained  in  their  old  homes  as  slaves, 
subjects,  fellow-citizens,  or  allies  of  the  conquerors.  As  in  most 
other  cases,  so  probably  in  the  case  of  Greece,  the  conquering 
tribes  were  less  numerous  than  the  conquered  people.  Thus  the 
Prehellenic  inhabitants  of  Greece  became  in  great  measure  the 
ancestors  of  the  Hellenes,  whether  they  were  originally  of  kindred 
race  with  the  invaders  or  not.  The  remains  of  their  art  are 
therefore  of  interest  to  the  student  of  Greek  archaeology.  But 
their  art  throughout  its  long  and  varied  development  is  different 
from  Greek  art,  and  there  is  a  period  of  several  centuries  between 

38 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  39 

the  overthrow  of  the  latest  Prehellenic  civilization  and  the  earliest 
recognizable  works  of  Greek  art;  the  Prehellenic  period,  or 
periods,  must  therefore  be  treated  briefly  in  a  book  on  Greek 
archaeology. 

No  remains  of  the  palaeolithic  age  —  the  period  when  men  had 
not  yet  learned  to  grind  or  polish  their  stone  implements  —  have 
as  yet  been  found  on  Greek  soil.  Of  the  neolithic  period,  how- 
ever, some  monuments  are  known,  and  further  discoveries  will 
doubtless  bring  others  to  light.  This  is  the  period  when  the  use 
of  metals  was  as  yet  unknown,  but  when  stone  implements 
were  ground  and  polished,  not  merely  chipped.  Of  course  some 
kinds  of  stone,  notably  obsidian,  are  never  ground,  because  they 
acquire  a  sharper  edge  by  being  chipped  or  broken.  The  neo_ 
The  stone  age  in  Greece  was  shorter  than  in  northern  lithicage 
and  western  Europe,  perhaps  because  Greece  was  so  near  the 
early  civilization  of  Babylonia  and  Egypt.  The  lowest  stratum  at 
Troy  probably  belongs  to  the  neolithic  age ;  at  Dimini,  Sesklo,  and 
other  places  in  Thessaly,  were  important  neolithic  settlements ;  at 
Cnossus  and  other  sites  in  Crete  neolithic  remains  are  extensive, 
and  at  various  other  places  minor  discoveries  of  neolithic  objects 
have  been  made.  In  general  the  neolithic  remains  consist  of 
stone  and  bone  implements  and  rude  pottery.  This  last  is  made 
of  imperfectly  worked  clay,  is  shaped  by  hand  without  the  use 
of  the  potter's  wheel,  is  decorated,  if  at  all,  with  lines  incised  in 
the  soft  clay,  and  is  fired  in  an  open  fire,  not  in  a  potter's  oven. 
At  Cnossus  and  in  Thessaly  the  use  of  color  for  the  decoration 
appears  before  the  use  of  metal  tools.  Undoubtedly  the  stone 
age  lasted  longer  in  some  places  than  in  others,  and  the  use  of 
metal  tools  does  not  always  mark  exactly  the  same  stage  of  civili- 
zation. 

Various  terms  are  used  by  different  writers  to  designate  the 
various  civilizations  which  existed  in  the  centuries  between  the 
neolithic  age  and  the  beginnings  of  Hellenic  culture.  By  some 
everything  in  Greece  and  the  Greek  islands  earlier  than  the 
Dorian  Invasion  has  been  called  "  Mycenaean " ;  but  this  ex- 


40  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

tended  use  of  the  word  is  now  becoming  rare.  The  terra 
"  Aegean "  is  sometimes  used  as  the  equivalent  of  "  Myce- 
naean "  in  this  sense.  At  present  the  term  "  Mycenaean " 
is  applied  especially  to  the  comparatively  late  period  when 
Mycenae  was  at  the  height  of  her  power  and  the  greatness  of 
_Cjios§ias_  was  already  old.  Everything  before  this  time  is  often  ' 
called  "  Premycenaean,"  but  here  also  various  divisions  are  made, 
corresponding  with  differences  in  culture.  The  term  "  Proto- 
Nomencla-  mycenaean  "  is  applied  to  pottery  and  other  objects, 
ture  the  decoration  of  which  leads  up  directly  to  that  of 

objects  classed  as  "  Mycenaean,"  and  the  term  "  Early  Mycenaean  " 
is  used  in  a  similar  sense.  "  Cycladic  "  is  a  term  applied  to  a 
limited  series  of  rather  primitive  objects  found  in  the  Cyclades, 
and  to  the  civilization  that  produced  them.  The  word  "  Amor- 
gan "  was  formerly  used,  because  Amorgos  furnished  many  of 
these  objects,  but  "  Cycladic  "  is  preferable.  The  island  of  Crete 
was  evidently  for  centuries  the  seat  of  a  powerful  civilization 
which  is  connected  by  tradition  with  the  name  of  King  Minos. 
Hence  the  word  "  Minoan  "  is  used  to  designate  the  civilization 
of  Crete  before  and  during  the  "  Mycenaean "  epoch ;  it  should 
not  be  employed  where  no  reference  to  Crete  is  intended.  Even 
more  limited  is  the  term  "  Kamares  "  (Kamarais),  applied  prima- 
rily to  a  kind  of  Premycenaean  pottery  first  found  in  a  cave  on 
Mt.  Ida  in  Crete,  and  secondarily  to  the  civilization  of  the  people 
by  whom  the  pottery  was  produced.  Objects  produced  in  the  pe- 
riod immediately  after  the  Mycenaean  age,  and  showing  qualities 
of  Mycenaean  art,  are  sometimes  called  "  Submycenaean,"  and  the 
term  "  Predorian  "  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  all  that  pre- 
cedes the  "  Dorian  Invasion."  This  last  term  may  properly  be 
used  only  in  reference  to  those  regions  which  were  afterwards 
occupied  by  the  Dorians.  Of  the  terms  here  defined,  only 
"  Aegean  "  and  "  Mycenaean,"  with  "  Premycenaean,"  "  Protomy- 
cenaean,"  and  "  Submycenaean,"  can  properly  be  applied  to  all 
parts  of  the  Greek  world.  The  application  of  the  other  terms  is 
limited  in  space  as  well  as  time. 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  41 

The  different  phases  and  degrees,  as  well  as  the  different  dates 
of  civilization  in  Prehellenic  Greece,  may  be  distinguished  and 
studied  in  various  kinds  or  classes  of*  existing  remains  :  Existing 
city  walls,  house  walls,  and  foundations ;  tombs,  weap-  remains 
ons,  utensils  and  ornaments  of  stone,  metal,  ivory,  bone,  and 
glass ;  sculptures,  frescoes,  and  pottery ;  but  the  most  important  of 
all  is  the  pottery.  This  is  found  in  all  cemeteries  and  inhabited 
sites,  and  occurs  in  such  numerous  specimens  that  it  serves  as  a 
fairly  sure  indication  of  the  degree  of  civilization  of  the  people 
who  made  it,  especially  when  it  is  considered  in  connection  with 
the  tombs,  walls,  and  other  remains  among  which  it  is  found.  It 
is  therefore  chiefly  by  differences  in  their  pottery  that  the  dif- 
ferent periods  of  early  civilization  are  most  clearly  marked. 

The  most  primitive  pottery  of  the  Troad  is  handmade  and  black. 
The  shapes  are  usually  round  and  full,  sometimes  nearly  spherical. 
Often  the  human  face  or  form  is  rudely  imitated,  and  imitations 
of  animals  also  occur.     The  decoration  is  usually  in-   primitive 
cised,  often  added  in  relief.     Pottery  resembling  that     pottery 
of  the  Troad  is  found  also  in  Cyprus.     Painted  pottery  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  produced  at  Troy  until  a  comparatively  late 
period,  and  then  only  in  imitation  of  imported  Mycenaean  ware. 

At  various  places  in  continental  Greece,  as  at  Athens,  Tiryns, 
and  Orchomenus,  primitive  handmade  pottery  has  been  found, 
which  evidently  belongs  to  a  very  early  period.  Ware  similar  to 
this  occurs  in  the  Cyclades,  from  Thera  at  the  south  to  Tenos  at 
the  north,  and  in  these  islands  the  pottery  is  found  in  graves  and 
among  the  ruins  of  settlements.  These  remains  evidently  belong 
to  different  periods,  and  the  pottery  develops  from  primitive 
rudeness  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence  before  the  native  manu- 
facture of  the  islanders  yields  to  imported  Mycenaean  ware.  At  no 
single  place  can  this  development  be  more  easily  traced  than  at 

Phylakopi,  the  site  of  an  ancient  town  on  the  island 

Phylakopi 
of  Melos,  excavated  by  the  British  School  at  Athens 

in  1896, and. the  following  years.     The  site  was  evidently  occu- 
pied by  several   successive  settlements,  and   the  occurrence  of 


42  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

pottery  in  the  different  strata  formed  by  the  remains  of  these 
settlements  makes  it  possible  to  study  the  changes  in  the  vases 
and  their  decoration  and  to  connect  each  kind  of  pottery  with 
the  proper  stage  of  culture  as  exhibited  by  the  other  remains. 
At  Phylakopi  the  earliest  stratum  shows  fragments  of  primitive,  un- 
painted,  handmade  ware,  decorated,  if  at  all,  with  incised  straight 
lines,  but  it  shows  no  traces  of  walls.  The  people  of  this  earliest 
period  lived,  then,  in  huts  which  have  left  no  trace.  Above  these 
slight  remains  was  built  the  first  of  three  successive  cities.  This 
first  city  has  left  remains  of  straight-walled  houses,  containing  one, 
two,  and  more  rooms.  The  walls  of  the  houses  were  of  stone, 
plastered  inside.  A  manufactory  of  obsidian  implements  was 
found  in  connection  with  the  remains  of  this  city.  The  pottery  is 
still  handmade,  and  its  decoration  is  often  incised,  but  the  pat- 
terns are  more  advanced,  and  painted  decoration  is  introduced. 
The  color  is  sometimes  dull  (mattmalerei)  and  sometimes  glazed 
(jirnissmalerei).  Neither  stone  implements  nor  metal  tools  were 
found  in  this  stratum.  The  first  city  was  unfortified.  In  the 
second  city  the  house  walls  were  of  stone,  like  those  of  the  first 
city,  but  better  built,  and  the  inner  walls  were  sometimes  deco- 
rated with  paintings.  Lead  and  bronze  were  in  use  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  second  city.  The  pottery  is  no  longer  exclusively 
handmade ;  curvilinear  decoration,  already  introduced  in  the  first 
city,  almost  drives  out  the  decoration  with  straight  lines ;  incised 
decoration  disappears,  and  naturalistic  painted  designs  are  intro- 
duced. This  city  was  surrounded  with  a  strong  fortification.  The 
third  city  continued  for  a  time  to  produce  pottery  like  that  found 
in  the  second,  but  much  pottery  of  Mycenaean  style  began  to  be 
imported.  The  importance  of  the  place  was  evidently  declining, 
perhaps  with  the  decline  of  the  demand  for  obsidian  implements, 
the  only  important  objects  of  export  which  Melos  could  produce. 
Phylakopi  shows  a  development  from  the  rudest  handmade  pot- 
tery with  rectilinear  incised  decoration  through  successive  stages 
to  carefully  made  vases  turned  on  the  wheel  and  decorated  with 
naturalistic  painted  designs. 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE 


43 


Various  stages  of  this  development  are  represented,  with  local 
differences,  by  objects  found  at  Amorgos,  Paros,  Antiparos,  Syra, 
and  other  places  in  the  Cyclades.  A  few  specimens  Early  island 
will  serve  to  illustrate  the  progress  of  art  from  the  civilization 
earliest  to  the  latest  times  of  Premycenaean  Cycladic  civilization. 
At  various  places  cemeteries  have  been  found  which  correspond, 
more  or  less  closely,  with  the  earliest  remains  and  the  first  city  at 
Phylakopi.  The  tombs  are  small  cists,  made  of  slabs  and  small 
stones,  in  which  the  dead  were  buried  in  a  bent  posture.  Some 
of  the  earliest  of  these  graves  were  found 
at  Amorgos  and  Melos,  some  of  the  lat- 
est at  Syra.  In  them  were  clay  vessels, 
marble  vases  and  idols,  obsidian  imple- 
ments, and,  in  a  few  instances,  objects 
of  bronze.  The  marble  idols  range  from 
two  or  three  centimetres  to  a  metre  and 
a  half  in  height,  but  are  usually  less  than 
twenty  centimetres  high.  Many  of  them 
represent  a  nude  female,  though  some 
represent  a  male,  and  in  others  the  sex 
is  indeterminate  (Fig.  i).  There  are 
two  main  types,  each  with  many  varia- 
tions. One  type  shows  the  nude  per- 
son, with  the  head  and  limbs  clearly 
outlined,  the  arms  laid  across  the  breast. 
The  other  type  resembles  a  violin.  The  head  is  represented  only 
by  a  long  projection  like  a  neck,  while  the  arms  appear  as  mere 
swellings,  and  a  similar  swelling  probably  indicates  the  drapery 
about  the  legs.  The  two  types  existed  side  by  side,  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  see  how  one  could  have  arisen  from  the  other.  Apparently 
these  idols  were  connected  with  the  religious  cult  of  the  people 
who  produced  them,  and  although  the  form  of  the  nude*  female 
idols  may  possibly  be  influenced  by  that  of  the  Babylonian  Ishtar, 
it  is  at  least  as  probable  that  no  such  influence  was  exerted.  Such 
idols  have  been  found  also  in  Crete  and  in  continental  Greece,  but 


FIG.  i.  —  Idols  from  the 
Cyclades.  Athens.  (Pho- 
tograph.) 


44 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


not  as  yet  in  such  numbers  as  in  the  Cyclades.  The  pottery  found 
in  these  tombs  is  for  the  most  part  rude,  and  adorned  only  with 
incised  straight  lines.  The  clay  is  of  various  kinds  and  colors, 
apparently  the  local  clay  of  each  place.  The  surface,  usually 
black,  is  polished  by  rubbing.  Patterns  of  curved  lines,  spirals, 
and  circles  joined  by  straight  lines  are  common,  but  not  in  the  ear- 
liest graves.  A  well-developed  form 
of  this  kind  of  ornament  is  found  on 
some  curious  flat  vessels  from  Syra 
(Fig.  2).  The  incised  lines  are  often 
filled  with  a  white  substance.  Most 
of  these  early  vessels  are  nearly  spher- 
ical in  shape,  often  with  a  base  and 
a  neck,  or  are  flat  dishes  or  cups. 
Often  they  have  projections  at  the 
sides,  perforated  either  horizontally 
or  vertically,  doubtless  that  the  ves- 
sel might  be  hung  up  by  a  string. 
The  marble  vessels  are  not  for  use, 
but  are  imitations  of  clay  vessels. 
This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  only  partially  hollow.  These  marble  vessels  show  no  traces  of 
painting,  though  painted  geometrical  decoration  is  found  on  some 
ware  of  the  period  to  which  they  belong.  Pottery  similar  to  this 
early  ware  from  the  Cyclades,  but  differing  from  it  in  some  respects, 
has  been  found  in  Crete,  and  the  early  pottery  of  Cyprus  shows  a 
parallel  development.  Ware  found  in  the  second  settlement  at 
Troy  and  in  Sicily  shows  that  the  early  civilization  of  a  great  part 
of  the  coast  region  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  possessed  the 
same  general  character. 

Even  in  the  early  stages  of  civilization  which  produced  the  ob- 
jects just  described,  different  places  show  more  or  less  independent 
Local  differ-    development.     In  the  following  period  the  local  dif- 
ences         ferences   are   greater  and   more   important.     At  this 
time  cities  were  fortified  with  walls,  rough  and  poorly  built  at  first, 


FlG.  2. —  Flat  vessel  from  Syra. 
Athens.     (Photograph.) 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE 


45 


but  more  carefully  constructed  of  hewn  stone  as  time  went  on. 
Whether  the  stones  were  polygonal  or  rectangular  depended  in  great 
measure  upon  their  hardness  and  natural  cleavage.  At  this  time, 
and  throughout  the  Prehellenic  ages,  the  stones  were  laid  in  clay 
mortar,  or  mud,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  period,  at  least,  small 
stones  were  stuck  into  the  interstices  between  the  large  blocks  (Fig. 
1 6).  At  Cnossus,  in  Crete,  there  was  little  or  no  fortification,  for 
even  at  this  time  the  inhabitants  seem  to  have  believed  themselves 
safe  from  attack  on  account  of  their  naval  supremacy.  Crete  was, 
for  a  period  of  several  centuries,  which  includes  part  of  the  My- 
cenaean Age,  the  chief  centre  of  civilization  in  the  Aegean  region. 


FIG.  3.  — Stucco  relief  from  Cnossus.     Candia.     (B.S.A.,  Vol.  VII,  p.  17.) 


At   Cnossus  important  settlements  existed   from   the   neolithic 
period,  and  in  later  times  Cnossus  and  Phaestus  were 
the  sites  of  great  palaces,  which  reached  the  height 
of  their  splendor  in  the  times  of  the  second  and  third  cities  at 


Cnossus 


46 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FlG.  4.  —  Painting  from  Cnossus.    Can- 
dia.     (B.S.A.,  Vol.  VI  I,  p.  57.) 


Phylakopi.     The  walls   of  these   vast  structures  were  decorated 
with  paintings  and  stucco  reliefs,  many  fragments  of  which  have 

been  found,  especially  at  Cnos- 
sus. The  subjects  represented 
cannot  in  all  cases  be  deter- 
mined, but  among  them  are 
processions,  groups  of  men  and 
women,  and  combats  of  men, 
and  also  of  women,  with  bulls. 
The  style  is  naturalistic  and  the 
execution  admirable.  The  frag- 
ment of  a  stucco  relief  repro- 
duced in  Figure  3  represents 
the  arm  and  part  of  the  body 
of  a  man,  and  may  serve  to 
give  some  idea  of 
Cretan  decora- 
tive art.  In  date  this  and  some  of  the  other  works 
of  art  mentioned  above  may  not  be  earlier  than 

)  some  of  those  to  be  described 

^^  hereafter  as  products  of  My- 

2|  cenaean  art,  but  it  is  now  evi- 

A       .      dent  that  Mycenaean  art  was 
VflT     //     in  great  measure  derived  from 
^Bftx"'        Crete,    where    art    developed 
earlier    than    on    the    Greek 
mainland.    Perhaps  even  later 
than  the  stucco  relief  is  the 
painting   of  a    girl  (Fig.   4). 
Some  of  the  Cretan  clay  fig- 
urines are  also  interesting  and 
instructive.      An  early  type  is  FlG.  6.  -  Snake- 

FlG.  5.  —  Painted  terra-     Seen  in  Figure  5  (from  Petsofa),        goddess    from 
cotta    from     Petsofa.        hy      tfa       fi  f  fe  Cnossus   Can- 

Candia.  (B.S.A.,  Vol.  dia.      (B.S.A., 

ix,  PI.  8.)  goddess,  in  faience  or  glazed      Vol.  ix,  p.  75.) 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE 


47 


terracotta,  from  Cnossus  (Fig.  6)  belongs  to  a  time  nearer  that  of 
the  stucco  relief,  and  the  faience  plaque  representing  a  goat  suck- 
ling her  young  (Fig.  7)  may  be  even  a  little  later.  All  these  clay 
figurines  were  colored. 


FIG.  7.  —  Terracotta  relief  from  Cnossus.    Candia.     (B.S.A.,  Vol.  IX,  PI.  3.) 

A  peculiar  product  of  Crete,  contemporary,  roughly  speaking, 
with  the  second  city  at  Phylakopi,  is  the  so-called  Kamares 
(Kamarais)  ware.  This  is  sometimes  coarse,  some-  Kamares 
times  very  fine,  but  is  distinguished  from  other  ware  ware 
by  its  use  of  red  and  dull  white  paint,  with  some  orange  and  yellow, 
upon  a  ground  of  black  (sometimes  reddish  or  purplish)  varnish  or 
glaze.  The  ornament  is  most  often  geometrical,  but  sometimes 
imitates  plants.  Many  vases  are  adorned  with  rings,  wavy  lines,  and 
knobs  in  relief,  and  some  are  partially  covered  with  irregular  lines 
which  look  as  if  made  with  the  finger  tips.  These  vessels  are  all 
made  on  the  potter's  wheel,  except  some  large,  coarse  specimens, 
which  are  handmade.  Some  of  the  usual  shapes  are  small  cups, 
with  or  without  handles;  others  are  higher  vases  with  spouts  or 
beaks  (so-called  Schnabelkannen)  (Figs.  8,  9).  Many  of  these 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


vessels  are  evident  imitations  of  metal  work.     So   one   common 
kind  of  cup   closely  resembles   such    cups    as    those    found   at 

Vaphio  (Fig.  40),  even  having 
knobs  to  represent  the  rivets 
that  fasten  on  the  handles. 


FIG.    9.  —  Kamares    vase     (Schnabel- 
kanne)     from     Cnossus.      Candia. 
,  Vol.  XXI,  PI.  6.) 


FIG.  8.  —  Kamares  vase  (Schnabel- 
kanne)  from  Cnossus.  Candia. 
(/M.S.,  Vol.  XXI,  PI.  6.) 


Almost  as  soon  as  vases  began 
to  be  painted  at  all  in  Crete,  two 
systems,  that  of  painting  the  de- 
signs in  white  or  light  color  on 
a  dark  ground,  and  that  of  using 
black  or  dark  colors  on  a  light  ground,  existed  side  by  side.  The 
Kamares  ware  is  a  development  of  the  system  of  painting  light 
on  dark.  It  is  decorated  in  white  and  colors  upon  a  ground  of 
Cretan  black.  Other  Cretan  vases  show  white  decoration  on 
vases  a  black  ground,  as,  for  instance,  the  vase  reproduced 
in  Figure  10,  which  was  found  at  Cnossus,  and  belongs  to  the  time 
when  Kamares  ware  was  becoming  less  popular.  The  white  lilies 
on  this  vase  are  naturalistic,  with  hardly  a  trace  of  conventional- 
ism in  design.  After  this  the  fashion  prevailed  of  painting  the 
design  in  lustrous  black  upon  the  buff  or  reddish  clay  of  the  vase 
as  a  ground  color.  Some  Cretan  vases  of  this  kind  are  very  fine. 
At  Cnossus  they  are  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  greatest  period  of 
the  palace,  and  their  style  has  been  called  by  Dr.  Evans  the 
"Palace  Style."  Figure  n  represents  a  vase  of  this  style  found 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE 


49 


E  £> 
o 


u  X 


•r 


GREEK  ARCH.  —  4 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


not  at  Cnossus,  but  at  Mycenae.  As  time  went  on  the  pottery 
of  Crete  and  that  of  Mycenae  and  other  places  on  the  mainland 
became  practically  identical  in  decoration,  though  local  varieties 
may  still  be  traced. 

Kamares  ware  was  apparently  made  in  Crete  from  a  time  con- 
siderably before  2000  B.C.  until  1600  B.C.  or  a  little  later.     Vases 
imported  from  Crete  were  found  in  the  second  city  at  Phylakopi. 
Crete  and      Both  in    Crete   and   in    Melos  this  was  a  period  of 
Melos        prosperity  and  culture.     The  palaces  at  Cnossus  and 
Phaestus  were  great  and  splendid,  and  the  second  city  at  Phyla- 


iir 


FIG.  12.  —  Fisherman  vase  or  lamp-stand  from  Phylakopi.    Athens. 
(Phylakopi,  PI.  XXII.) 

kopi  apparently  attained  a  degree  of  prosperity  higher  than  any 
city  of  Melos  ever  reached  in  later  times.  The  Melian  pottery 
of  this  period  is  often  very  beautiful  and  adorned  with  striking 
representations  of  plants,  animals,  and  even  men,  as  well  as  with 
geometrical  patterns.  A  remarkable  fragment  shows  a  number 
of  men  walking,  each  holding  a  fish  in  his  hand  (Fig.  12).  Still 
more  remarkable  is  a  wall  fresco  representing  flying  fish,  painted 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE  51 

in  blue,  yellow,  and  black,  or  dark  brown,  on  a  cream)'  white 
ground.  The  drawing  is  naturalistic  and  the  decorative  effect 
good.  This  fresco  is  very  similar  to  some  of  the  paintings  at 
Cnossus,  and  may  be  the  work  of  a  Cretan  artist  (Fig.  13). 


FIG.  13.  —  Fresco  from  Phylakopi.    Athens.     (Phylakopi,  PI.  III.) 

The  pottery  from  the  island  of  Thera  is  especially  interesting. 
The  clay  is  carefully  prepared,  and  has  a  grayish  yellow  surface. 
The  decoration  is  applied  in  dull  color,  usually  dark  Pottery 
brown.  Straight  lines,  circles,  and  spiral  curves  are  from  Thera 
most  usual,  but  representations  of  plant  forms  are  frequent,  and 
birds  and  animals  also  occur.  The  shapes  of  the  vases  are  more 
elegant  than  those  of  the  primitive  vases  from  graves  in  the 
Cyclades,  sometimes  as  fine  as  those  of  the  later  period.  They 
include  cups,  pitchers  or  jugs,  and  funnel-shaped  vessels  with  a 
hole  in  the  bottom,  which  must  have  been  used  either  as  funnels 
for  pouring  liquids  into  narrow-necked  receptacles  or  as  drinking 
cups.  In  the  latter  case,  the  drinker  must  have  stopped  the  hole 
in  the  bottom  with  his  finger  or  thumb,  by  removing  which  he 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


Gems 


FIG.  14.  —  Vases  from  Thera.     Athens.     (Rayet  and  Collignon,  Hist,  de  la 
Ciramiquc  Grecque,  pp.  9,  10,  II.) 

could  let  the  liquid  run  into  his  mouth.  As  the  vessel  could  not 
be  set  down  unless  empty,  it  was  necessarily  emp- 
tied at  a  draught  (Fig.  14). 

At  various  places  in  what  were  afterwards  Hel- 
lenic lands,  especially  in  Crete,  engraved  seals  or 
gems  have  been  found  which  belong 
to  the  period  under  discussion.     They 
have  usually  three  sides,  all  engraved  with  the 
same  device.     Sometimes  the  shape  is  conical. 
The  stone  used  is  soft,  chiefly  steatite,  and  in  this 
the  devices  are  rudely  cut  and  bored  by  hand. 
The  devices  consist  of  men,  beasts,  vases,  orna- 
ments (often  spirals),  and  various  signs,  some  of 
which  seem  to  be  a  kind  of  writing.     Some  of  the 
ornaments  show  close  connection  with  Egyptian 
art    of  the    Twelfth    Dynasty,    about    2000   B.C. 
(Fifr  '5)-     The  seals  themselves  are  probably  of 
25,26,28.)  not  much  later  date.     At  a  later  time,  in   the 


FIG.  15.  —  Primi- 
tivegems.  (Furt- 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE  53 

"  Mycenaean  "  period,  the  use  of  engraved  seals,  or  gems,  was 
widespread,  and  the  engraving  is  often  very  fine. 

At  Cnossus  and  Phaestus,  the  two  great  centres  of  early  civili- 
zation in  Crete,  the  period  marked  by  the  production  of  Kamares 
ware  came  to  a  violent  close.  The  great  palaces  were  destroyed, 
and  new  rulers,  possibly  foreigners,  entered  into  possession. 
After  this  the  palaces  were  rebuilt,  but  the  art  now  displayed 
is  not  a  mere  development  from  what  preceded,  but  something 
new  and  different.  The  old  art  survived  in  some  places  alongside 
of  the  new,  and  many  old  elements  were  accepted  by  the  new 
artists,  but  in  general  a  marked  change  took  place.  The  new  art 
of  Cnossus,  Phaestus,  and  other  places  in  Crete  is  identical  with 
the  art  previously  known  from  discoveries  in  many  places,  among 
which  Mycenae  was  the  first  discovered  and  the  most  important, 
and  it  is  called  for  that  reason  "  Mycenaean  Art,"  Mycenaean 
though  its  chief  seat  seems,  in  the  light  of  recent  dis-  Art 
coveries,  to  have  been  Crete.  Mycenae  and  Tiryns  were,  how- 
ever, important  centres  ;  less  important  settlements  were  other 
places  in  the  Argolid,  in  Laconia,  Attica,  Megara,  Boeotia,  Thes- 
saly,  and  many  of  the  Greek  islands,  including  Cephalonia,  Ithaca, 
and  Leucas  off  the  western  coast  of  Greece.1  The  pottery  and 
other  objects  produced  by  the  artisans  and  artists  belonging  to 
this  civilization  are  found  from  Egypt  to  Sicily.  The  connection 
with  Egypt  was  evidently  especially  close  in  Crete,  which  is  a 
natural  result  of  the  geographical  position  of  the  island,  but  it 
extended  to  all  Greek  islands  and  the  mainland.  Egyptian  in- 
fluence is  plainly  seen  in  many  products  of  Mycenaean  art,  but 
that  art  is  clearly  different  from  Egyptian  art,  as  the  Mycenaean 
civilization  was  different  from  Egyptian  civilization. 

In  the  great  Cretan  centres  of  Mycenaean  civilization,  Cnossus 
and  Phaestus,  massive  fortifications  did  not  exist,  but  the  walls  of 

1  It  may  be  that  the  civilization  spread  from  Crete  to  the  mainland,  and 
that  then  the  inhabitants  of  the  mainland  (Achaeans)  crossed  over  to  Crete 
and  conquered  the  great  Cretan  cities.  This  theory  would  account  for  some 
of  the  changes  that  evidently  took  place  in  Crete. 


54 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Tiryns  and  Mycenae  testify  strongly  to  the  skill  of  their  builders. 
The  earlier  parts  of  the  walls  at  Tiryns  are  built  of  large  stones, 
left  nearly  in  their  natural  shapes,  but  with  the  outer  face  roughly 
hammered  to  something  like  a  plane  surface.  The  interstices 
were  filled  with  small  stones  and  clay  mortar,  which  has  now 
been  almost  entirely  washed  out  by  the  rains  of  centuries  (Fig. 
1 6).  Other  and  later  parts  of  the  walls  are  built  of 
square  blocks,  laid  in  somewhat  irregular  horizontal 
courses.  A  remarkable  feature  of  the  walls  at  Tiryns  is  a  series 
of  rooms  leading  from  a  gallery  constructed  in  the  thickness  of 


Buildings 


FIG.  16.  — Wall  of  the  citadel  of  Tiryns.     (Photograph.) 

the  walls.  The  roof  of  the  gallery  and  the  doorways  leading  into 
the  rooms  have  nearly  the  form  of  a  Gothic  arch,  but  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  keystone  arch  is  not  applied.  The  great  blocks  of 
stone  project  from  the  side  walls,  and  the  space  between  the  top 
of  these  projecting  blocks  is  filled  with  a  stone  resting  on  and  be- 
tween those  immediately  below  it  (Fig-  17).  Such  galleries  are 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE 


55 


exceptional,  though  something  like  them  existed  at  Mycenae> 
but  the  system  of  the  corbelled  arch,  formed  by  courses  of  stones, 
each  projecting  over  the  one  immediately  below,  is  employed  in 
highly  perfected  form  in  the  dome  (beehive)  tombs  of  Mycenae 
and  Orchomenus.  A  fine  example  of  Mycenaean  wall-building,  of 
a  date  later  than  that  of  the  walls  at  Tiryns,  is  seen  at  the  Lions' 


FlG.  17. —  Gallery  at  Tiryns.     (Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Hist,  de  I' art  dans  I'antiquite, 
Vol.  VI,  p.  276.) 

Gate  at  Mycenae  (Fig.  18).  Here  the  stones  are  cut  into  rectan- 
gular blocks  and  laid  in  horizontal  courses.  The  gateway,  slightly 
narrower  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  is  framed  by  massive 
stone  jambs  and  covered  by  a  great  stone  lintel,  above  which  is  a 
triangular  space,  left  empty  save  for  the  comparatively  thin  slab 
on  which  the  lions  are  carved.  This  space  was  not  filled  with 
heavy  blocks  for  fear  that  their  weight  would  break  the  lintel. 
The  main  entrance  to  the  citadel  at  Tiryns  resembles,  so  far  as  it 
is  preserved,  the  Lions'  Gate.  Both  at  Mycenae  and  Tiryns  a 
smaller  postern  gate  exists,  less  elaborate  than  the  main  entrance, 
but  constructed  in  the  same  way,  except  that  on  account  of  the 
narrowness  of  the  gateway  it  was  not  necessary  to  relieve  the 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


lintel  of  the  weight  of  the  wall  above.  A  third  fine  example  of 
Mycenaean  fortification  is  found  at  Gla,  once  in  Lake  Copais,  and 
remains  of  Mycenaean  city  walls  exist  in  some  other  places. 


Palaces 


FIG.  18.  — The  Lions'  Gate  at  Mycenae.     (Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Hist,  de  I' art  dans 
_,  I'antiguite,  Vol.  VI,  p.  317.) 

The  most  important  remains  of  dwellings  of  the  Mycenaean 
times  are  those  of  the  palaces  at  Cnossus,  Phaestus,  Tiryns,  and 
Mycenae.  Of  these,  the  palace  at  Cnossus  was  by  far 
the  largest,  and  is,  in  some  respects,  the  best  pre- 
served. The  palaces  at  Phaestus  (Phaestus  proper  and  Hagia 
Triada)  were  also  magnificent  residences,  and  are  in  parts  well 
preserved.  The  palaces  at  Tiryns  and  Mycenae  were  less  large 
than  the  great  Cretan  palaces,  but  they  have  been  known  longer, 
and  their  clearness  and  simplicity  of  plan  makes  them  easier  to 
understand.  These  palaces  are  all  built  on  hills,  and  in  each  case 
the  hill  has  been  prepared  to  receive  the  building,  but  not  so  that 
the  foundations  for  the  entire  palace  are  on  one  level.  On  the 
contrary,  the  palaces  are  built  on  two  or  more  terraces,  so  that 
the  floors  were  at  different  heights,  and  different  parts  of  the 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE 


57 


buildings  were  approached  by  stairs.  The  division  into  terraces 
is  especially  noticeable  in  the  great  Cretan  palaces.  It  is,  how- 
ever, certain  that  each  of  these  was  built  at  several  different  times, 
and  it  is  as  yet  not  quite  clear  how  great  a  part  of  any  of  them 


10 6 10 30  50  70  90  METRES 

FIG.  19.  —  Plan  of  the  palace  at  Cnossns.     (Burrows,  The  Discoveries  in  Crete, 

PI.  4-) 

was  in  use  at  one  time.  All  the  palaces,  whether  in  Crete  or  in 
continental  Greece,  are  alike  in  having  their  foundations  and  the 
lower  parts  of  their  main  walls  built  of  well-squared  blocks  of 
stone.  In  Crete  the  upper  parts  of  the  walls  were  of  rubble,  held 
together  with  clay  mortar  and  wooden  beams.  In  Greece  proper 


58  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  upper  parts  of  the  wall  seem  to  have  been  rather  of  sun-dried 
brick.  The  surfaces  of  walls  were  covered,  at  least  within  the 
palaces,  where  they  would  be  seen  by  inmates  and  visitors,  with 
plaster,  which  was  decorated  with  paintings.  At  Cnossus  and 
Phaestus,  the  lower  parts  of  walls  were  often  cased  with  slabs  of 
gypsum.  The  plan  of  the  Cretan  palaces  is  elaborate  and  com- 
plicated, as  is  natural  in  such  great  structures.  The  palace  at 
Cnossus  was  in  parts,  at  least,  two  or  three  stories  high  and  con- 
tained several  courts,  one  or  two  chapels  or  sanctuaries,  rooms 
for  audiences  and  receptions,  magazines,  storerooms,  sleeping 
rooms,  workshops  of  various  kinds,  bathrooms,  —  in  short,  all  the 
apartments  of  a  great  establishment,  where  wealth  and  luxury 
abounded  (Fig.  19). 


FlG.  20.  —  The  palace  at  Tiryns.    (Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's  Ausgrabungen,  Pi.  4.) 

The  palace  at  Tiryns,  though  far  less  extensive  than  the  palace 
at  Cnossus  or  those  at  Phaestus,  was  still  a  large  edifice  or  group 
of  edifices  (Fig  20).  It  had  a  pillared  gateway  or  propylaeum,  a 
large  open  court,  a  megaron  or  hall  for  men,  a  similar,  somewhat 
smaller  hall  for  the  women,  a  bathroom,  and  many  other  apart- 
ments. The  megaron,  with  its  porch  (aithousd)  and  vestibule  (pro- 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  59 

domos},  was  the  chief  part  of  the  palace,  about  which  the  other 
apartments  were  grouped.    The  arrangement  agrees  in  general  with 
the  Homeric  description  of  the  house  of  Odysseus.     The  hall  itself 
was  nearly  square.     In  the  middle  was  the   hearth,  about  which 
stood  four  columns  to  support  the  roof.     The  flat  bases  of  these 
columns  are  still  in  place.     The  side  walls  of  the  hall  are  con- 
tinued toward  the  front,  forming  the  outer  walls  of  the  vestibule 
and  the  porch.     Where  these  walls  end,  at  the  front  of  the  build- 
ing, are  stone  bases,  upon  which  once  stood  wooden  planks,  as  a 
protection  for  the  crude  brick  walls  against  the  weather.     Between 
the  ends  of  the  walls  are  two  stone  foundations  for  columns  which 
once  supported  the  architrave  or  beam  that  extended  from  one 
wall  (or  anta}  to  the  other.     The  front  of  the  building  was  there- 
fore very  similar  to  the  front  of  a  Greek  temple  in  antis.     The 
roof  of  the  Mycenaean  house  was  probably  flat   and 
covered  with  earth  or  clay.     This  is  a  priori  probable, 
since  tiles  were  as  yet  unknown  in  Greece,  and  thatch  is  for  various 
reasons  not  likely  to  have  been  in  general  use,  and  it  is  conclusively 
proved   by   a   fragment   of  a   silver     vessel    found    at    Mycenae 
(see  Fig.  41,  p.  81),  on  which  houses  with   flat   roofs   are  repre- 
sented.    Over  the  architrave  the  ends  of  beams  would  naturally 
have  been  visible  ;  on  these  were  laid  the  boards,  or,  more  probably, 
poles,   upon  which    the  earth   was    spread.     This  would  be   the 
simplest  form  of  such  a  roof,  the  projecting  eaves  of  which  would 
have  the  appearance  of  a  rude  cornice  immediately  above   the 
architrave.     If  large  beams  were  laid  at  intervals  from  the  archi- 
trave to  the  wall  of  the  porch,  the  roof  would  be  strengthened,  and 
the  layer  of  earth  or  clay  could  be  made  thicker  and  therefore 
more  perfectly  waterproof.     Above  the  architrave  would  then  ap- 
pear  at  regular  intervals  the  ends  of  the  large  beams,  and  be- 
tween  these    would   be  vacant   spaces.     If,    as  is  probable,  the 
beams  were  of  oblong  rectangular  section  and  somewhat  thicker 
in  their  vertical  than    in  their    horizontal    dimension,  the  effect 
would   resemble   that   of  the  Doric  frieze   of  triglyphs  between 
metopes.     It  is,  in  fact,  probable  that  the  Doric  temple  was  de- 


6o 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FlG.  21.  —  Mycenaean  palace.     Reconstruction  by  Charles  Chipiez. 
Chipiez,  Vol.  VI,  PI.  II.) 


(Perrot  and 


Columns 


veloped  from  the  Mycenaean  palace,  though  some  of  the  details  of 
its  development  are  not  as  yet  clear  (Fig.  21). 

The  column  in  Mycenaean  architecture  had  no  base,  such  as 
the  Ionic  column  of  later  times  possessed,  but  its  shaft  rose  di- 
rectly from  the  flat  stone  that  formed  its  foundation.  The  shaft1 
was  surmounted  by  a  capital  which  has  some  resemblance  to  the 
Doric  capital,  but  is  more  rounding  in  form.  Such 
columns  are  represented  in  several  monuments  of 
Mycenaean  times,  e.g.  a  wall  painting  from  Cnossus  and  the  relief 
over  the  Lions'  Gate  at  Mycenae  (see  Fig.  18),  while  the  semi- 
columns  that  once  stood  beside  the  entrance  of  the  so-called  Treas- 
ury or  Tomb  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae  are  still  so  far  preserved  that 

*On  some  gems  and  paintings  columns  are  represented,  the  shafts  of  which 
are  smaller  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  It  is,  however,  doubtful  whether 
this  was  usual.  See  T-  Durm,  Jahreshefte  d.  Oesterr.  Arch.  Inst.  X,  1907,  pp. 
41  ff.  The  restoration  of  the  semi-columns  of  the  so-called  Treasury  of  Atreus, 
(Fig.  22)  and  Fig.  21  should  perhaps  be  corrected  in  this  particular. 


PRP;HELLENIC  GREECE 


61 


they  can  be  completely  restored  (see  Fig.  22).  These  are,  how- 
ever, the  only  stone  columns  of  which  any  remains  or  traces  exist. 
As  a  rule  the  columns  in  Mycenaean  buildings  were  of  wood,  prob- 
ably often  protected  at  the  bottom  and  adorned  at  the  top  with  a 
sheathing  of  bronze. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  remains  of  Mycenaean  times  are 
the  chamber  tombs.     These  are  generally  excavated  in  the  earth 
or  rock  of  a  hill,  and  approached  by  a  sloping  passage      chamber 
(dromos).     They  are  ordinarily  of  such  moderate  size      tombs 
that  the  hard  earth  or  rock  keeps  its  place  without  artificial  sup- 
port.    Such  tombs  are  merely  excavated,  not  built.     But  in  many 
instances,  either  on  account  of 
the   character  of  the  soil  or 
because   a   more   magnificent 
tomb  was  desired,  the  subter- 
ranean   chamber    is    entirely 
walled  with  stone.   Such  tombs 
are  circular,  and   their   walls 
converge  in  a  curve  to  a  point 
at  the  top.    They  are  therefore 
called  dome  tombs,  or  beehive 
tombs.     The  courses  of  stone 
are  not  laid  so  as  to  converge 
toward  a  centre  in  the  inside 
of  the  hollow  space,   but  are 
horizontal,  and  the  individual 
stones  have  horizontal  upper 
and  lower  surfaces.   The  prin- 
ciple employed  is  that  of  the 
corbel   arch,  not  of  the  key- 


FlG.  22.  —  Entrance  of  the  "  Tomb  of 
Atreus."  Reconstruction  by  Charles 
Chipiez.  (Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Vol.  VI, 
PI.  6.) 


stone  arch,  and  the  stones  are 
held  in  place  by  the  pressure  of  earth  heaped  upon  the  outside. 
Some  of  these  tombs,  as  that  at  Menidi,  near  Athens,  and  those  at 
Dimini,  in  Thessaly,  are  built  of  small,  rough,  and  irregular  stones, 
while  others  are  beautifully  constructed  of  stones  carefully  cut  and 


62 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


fitted  together.  The  most  perfect  example  is  the  so-called  Treas- 
ury of  Atreus,  at  Mycenae  (Fig.  23),  though  the  tomb  beside  it, 
excavated  by  Mrs.  Schliemann,  and  the  tomb  at  Orchomenus,  in 
Boeotia,  were  originally  hardly  less  magnificent.  The  entrance 
passage,  or  dromos,  of  the  "Treasury  of  Atreus  "  is  6  metres  wide 
and  35  metres  long,  walled  on  each  side  with  well-laid  masonry  of 


FIG.  23.  — Section  and  plan  of  the  "  Tomb  of  Atreus."     (Perrot  and  Chipiez, 
Vol.  VI,  PI.  3.) 

rectangular  cut  stones.  The  door  is  5.40  metres  high,  2.66  metres 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  2.46  metres  at  the  top.  Above  the  door 
is  an  immense  lintel,  formed  of  two  stones,  the  inner  of  which  is  9 
metres  long,  5  metres  wide,  and  i  metre  thick,  and  must  weigh  not 
far  from  120  tons.  The  circular  room  measures  about  15  metres 
in  diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  its  height  is  about  the  same.  Many 
small  holes  and  remains  of  bronze  nails  shew  where  ornaments, 
probably  bronze  rosettes  and  the  like,  were  once  attached  to  the 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  63 

walls.  To  the  right  a  small  doorway  leads  into  a  rectangular 
chamber  cut  in  the  rock.  The  sides  and  top  of  this  chamber  are 
now  rough  and  unadorned,  but  in  the  similar  chamber  of  the 
tomb  at  Orchomenus  the  ceiling  was  formed  of  a  great  slab  of 
slate  completely  covered  with  an  elaborate  carved  pattern,  and 
there  are  indications  that  the  rough  walls  and  top  of  the  rectangu- 
lar chamber  of  the  "Treasury  of  Atreus  "  were  once  hidden  by 
slabs  of  stone,  probably  adorned  with  carvings  or  paintings.  In 
this  chamber  was,  apparently,  the  real  burial  place,  the  large 
circular  room  being  used  for  funeral  and  commemorative  cere- 
monies. The  entrance  from  the  dromos  to  the  great  chamber 
was  elaborate  and  magnificent.  At  each  side  stood  a  richly 
carved  column,  and  the  relieving  triangle  above  the  lintel  was 
certainly  filled  with  a  carved  slab  of  stone  (cp.  the  Lions'  Gate). 
There  are  sufficient  traces  of  other  ornamentation  to  make  the 
reconstruction  by  M.  Chipiez  (Fig.  22)  substantially  certain  in  all 
essential  points,  though  some  details  may  be  incorrect.  Such  a 
doorway  cannot  have  been  covered  up  immediately  after  the 
burial.  On  the  contrary,  the  tomb  must  have  continued  to  be 
visible  and  accessible.  Undoubtedly,  ceremonies  in  honor  of  the 
deceased  were  performed  here  by  his,  or  their,  descendants.  In 
fact,  this  great  tomb  and  others  of  the  same  kind  were,  without 
doubt,  family  tombs,  which  continued  in  use  for  years,  probably 
for  several  generations.  Most  dome  tombs  are  much  smaller  and 
less  elaborate  than  this.  They  have  no  side  chamber,  but  the 
dead  were  buried  in  the  floor  of  the  circular  room  or,  in  some 
cases,  especially  in  Crete,  were  placed  in  terracotta  sarcophagi. 
The  entrances  are  unadorned  and  the  masonry  comparatively 
rude.  All  show,  however,  the  same  general  qualities  which  are 
seen  in  their  highest  development  in  the  "  Treasury  of  Atreus." 

The  carving  of  the  columns  beside  the  entrance  of  the  "  Treas- 
ury of  Atreus  "  suffices  to  prove  that  the  processes  of  sculpture 
were  not  unknown  to  the  Mycenaean  workmen.   There  Mycenaean 
are,  however,  comparatively  few  extant  examples  of    sculpture 
Mycenaean  sculpture.     Among  the  most  widely  known  of  these 


64 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


are  four  stelae  found  by  Dr.  Schliemann  above  the  shaft  graves 
in  the  acropolis  at  Mycenae  (see  p.  70).  These  are  all  ornamented 
with  patterns  of  curved  lines,  and  three  of  them  bear,  in  addition, 
scenes  of  battle  or  the  chase.  On  the  stele  reproduced  in  Fig.  24, 
a  warrior  with  a  great  sword  at  his  side  is  driving  his  chariot 
toward  an  enemy,  who  holds  his  sword  high  in  the  air,  but  seems 
to  be  turned  away  from  his  assailant,  perhaps  intending  to  flee. 
Of  the  chariot  only  one  wheel  is  represented,  and  there  appears 

to  be  only  one  horse,  though  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  chariots 
were  drawn  by  two  horses.  The 
second  wheel,  like  the  second  horse, 
is  supposed  to  be  entirely  hidden. 
Whether  the  broad,  straight  object 
extending  from  the  charioteer's  hand 
to  the  horse's  head  is  a  spear,  or  rep- 
resents the  reins,  is  uncertain.  Apart 
from  the  clumsiness  of  the  drawing, 
the  most  striking  quality  in  the  execu- 
tion of  this  relief  is  its  flatness.  The 
figures  are  throughout  of  uniform 
thickness,  as  if  they  had  been  cut  out 
of  a  thin  sheet  of  stone  and  pasted 
upon  the  background.  The  date  of 
this  stele  cannot  be  much,  if  at  all,  earlier  than  that  of  the  stucco 
reliefs  from  Cnossus  (see  p.  45),  to  which  it  is  immeasurably  in- 
ferior. Perhaps,  however,  some  of  the  awkwardness  of  the  design 
was  originally  modified  by  a  thin  coat  of  plaster,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  relief  was  painted,  even  if  no  plaster  was  added 
before  the  paint  was  applied. 

A  later,  and  more  famous,  specimen  of  Mycenaean  sculpture 
adorns  the  slab  that  fills  the  relieving  triangle  over  the  Lions'  Gate. 
Here  two  lions  (or  lionesses,  for  the  sex  is  not  indicated)  are  seen 
standing  one  at  each  side  of  a  column,  which  rests  upon  a  high 
base  of  peculiar  form,  and  upon  this  base  the  lions  have  placed 


FlG.  24.  —  Stele  from  Mycenae. 
(Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's, 
Ausgrabungen,  Fig.  146.) 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE 


their  fore  feet.  The  heads  of  the  lions  are  now  wanting.  They 
were  made  of  separate  pieces  and  fastened  to  the  slab,  no  doubt  in 
such  a  way  that  they  faced  those  who  approached  the  gateway. 
The  column  has  a  capital  similar  to  the  capitals  of  the  columns  be- 
side the  doorway  of  the  "  Treasury  of  Atreus,"  and  above  this  are 
two  flat  horizontal  projections,  between  which  are  four  small  cir- 
cular disks.  As  the  column  must  represent  a  real  column,  it  is 
evident  that  the  projections  above  represent  an  architrave,  the  ends 
of  round  beams  above  the  architrave,  and  a  second  transverse  beam 
above  these.  In  Mycenaean  worship  columns  served  as  symbols 
of  deity,  and  in  some  cases  such  columns  have 
beams  over  them,  the  deity  being,  perhaps, 
regarded  as  the  "pillar  of  the  house."  It  is 
natural,  therefore,  to  regard  the  base  of  the 
column  above  the  Lions'  Gate  as  an  altar, 
and  the  column  itself  as  the  sacred  object  of 
worship.  Lions  also  seem  to  have  been 
symbolic  of  deity.  The  relief  is,  then,  a 
monument  to  the  religious  sentiments  of 
those  who  set  it  up  above  the  entrance  to  their 
citadel.  In  style  and  execution  this  relief  is 
greatly  superior  to  those  on  the  gravestones 
found  within  the  acropolis,  and  hardly,  if  at 
all,  inferior  to  the  best  stucco  reliefs  ofCnossus. 
Part  of  its  superiority  to  the  gravestones  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  made  of  much 
finer  and  better  stone,  and  that  it  was  not  in- 
tended to  be  covered  with  a  coat  of  plaster,  but  it  is  evidently  the 
work  of  a  more  advanced  artist.  Its  place  above  the  gateway, 
in  a  relatively  late  wall,  shows  that  it  belongs  to  a  comparatively 
late  time  in  the  history  of  Prehellenic  Mycenae,  certainly  much 
Uter  than  the  time  of  the  stelae  from  within  the  acropolis. 

Small  examples  of  Mycenaean  sculpture  are  comparatively 
numerous.  Some  of  the  clay  figurines  from  Crete,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  precursors  of  Mycenaean  sculpture,  have  already 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  5 


FIG. 25.  —  Bronze 
statuette.  Berlin. 
(Perrot  and  Chip- 
iez,Vol.VI,p.7S4.) 


66 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


been  mentioned.  A  bronze  statuette  (Fig.  25),  said  to  have  been 
Small  works  found  in  the  Troad  and  now  in  Berlin,  resembles  the 
of  sculpture  Cretan  figurines  in  some  respects,  and  may  perhaps  be 
actually  a  product  of  Cretan  art,  since  it  was  probably  not  made 
in  the  Troad,  but  at  any  rate  it  is  Mycenaean  in  its  character,  and 

belongs  to  the  time  of 
the  Mycenaean  civili- 
zation. The  flounced 
skirt  seen  in  this  figure 
is  a  characteristic  part 
of  the  Mycenaean 
woman's  costume. 
The  closely  fitting 
bodice  is  also  to  be  ob- 
served. Possibly  the 
noticeably  slenderwaist 
of  this  figure  (a  pe- 
culiarity even  more 
pronounced  in  some 
other  Mycenaean 
works)  may  be  in  some 
degree  a  natural  char- 
acteristic of  the  race, 
for  even  the  men  rep- 
resented in  Mycenaean 
sculpture  and  painting 
have  remarkably  slen- 


FlG.  26.  —  Ivory   figure  from   Cnossus.    Candia. 
(B.S.A.,  Vol.  VIII,  PI.  3.) 


der  waists,  but  the  lady  of  our  statuette,  as  well  as  those  rep- 
resented by  the  Cretan  figurines,  must  certainly  have  worn 
something  like  modern  corsets.  Evidently  the  costume  of  women 
in  those  days  was  elaborate  and  artificial.  The  male  costume, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  extremely  simple,  consisting  for  the  most 
part  of  a  mere  loin  cloth.  This  is  seen  on  many  monuments, 
among  them  a  leaden  figurine  from  Kampos,  in  Messenia.  The 
workmanship  of  this  statuette  is  by  no  means  so  good  as  that  of 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE 


67 


the  bronze  statuette  of  a  woman,  but  even  here  there  is  life 
and  action,  in  spite  of  some  rudeness  of  execution.  An  ivory 
figure  from  Cnossus  shows  still  greater  liveliness,  joined  with  exqui- 
site workmanship.  This  figure  (Fig.  26)  was  found  in  the  palace 
at  Cnossus  with  other  objects  that  belong  to  the  time  before  that  in 
which  Mycenaean  vases  prevail  there,  and-  it  may  therefore  be 
regarded,  perhaps,  as  a  specimen  of  the  art  from  which  the 
Mycenaean  artists  learned  their  lessons  rather  than  as  an  example 
of  Mycenaean  art  itself.  The  ivory  has  suffered  much  from  the 
ravages  of  time,  but  parts  of  it,  especially  the 
face,  are  so  well  preserved  that  the  delicacy  of 
the  work  is  evident.  The  youth  represented 
is  clearly  enough  engaged  in  some  athletic 
or  acrobatic  exercise,  probably  in  a  bull  fight, 
since  that  seems  to  have  been  a  favorite  sport 
at  Cnossus.  Fragments  of  ivory  adorned 
with  reliefs  have  been  found  in  tombs  at  My- 
cenae, Spata  (in  Attica),  and  elsewhere.  The 
one  reproduced  in  Figure  27  represents  the 
head  of  a  man  wearing  an  elaborate  helmet 
with  a  broad  chin-strap.  The  hair  above  the 
forehead  appears  in  the  form  of  conventional 
curls,  and  at  the  back  of  the  head,  below  the 
helmet,  it  seems  to  be  straight  and  fastened  with  a  band.  All 
details  are  wrought  with  the  greatest  care.  Other  ivory  reliefs 
represent  animals,  birds,  and  human  beings. 

In  Crete  not  a  few  small  reliefs  •  carved  in  steatite  have  been 
found,  several  of  which  are  interesting  on  account  of  their  repre- 
sentations as  well  as  their  style,  but  the  most  in-  TheHarvest- 
teresting  is  a  fragment  of  a  black  steatite  vase,  found  ers  Vase 
at  Hagia  Triada.  It  was  probably  once  plated  with  gold.  Unfortu- 
nately the  lower  part  of  the  vase  has  not  been  found,  but  the 
missing  portion  is  certainly  of  less  importance  than  that  which 
is  preserved  to  us,  since  what  we  have  includes  the  heads  and 
bodies  of  the  persons  represented  (Fig.  28).  The  part  of  the  relief 


FIG.  27.  —  Ivory  head 
from  Mycenae. 
Athens.  (Perrot 
and  Chipiez,  Vol. 
VI,  p.  811.) 


68 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


preserved  is  only  about  6  centimetres  (2^  inches)  high,  but  the 
small  scale  of  the  work  has  not  interfered  with  its  admirable  execu- 
tion. The  details  of  the  costume,  the  headdresses,  the  loin  cloths, 
the  curious  covering  or  cape  worn  by  the  long-haired  person  who 
seems  to  be  the  leader  of  the  procession,  the  shield-like  objects 
carried  by  three  of  the' company,  and  the  long,  three-pronged  forks 


FlG.  28.  —  Steatite  vase  from  Hagia  Triada.     (Monumenti  Antichi,  Vol.  XIII, 
Pis.  i  and  3.) 

carried  by  nearly  all  the  others,  are  represented  with  the  utmost 
conscientiousness  and  clearness.  The  doubts  that  have  existed 
concerning  the  interpretation  of  the  relief  have  been  due,  not  to  any 
ambiguity  in  the  artist's  expression,  but  to  the  fact  that  ancient 
utensils  are  not  readily  recognized  by  modern  eyes.  The  long, 
three-pronged  objects  are  not  tridents  intended  to  be  used  as  weap- 
ons, but  rather  pitchforks,  and  the  objects  carried  like  shields,  which 
are  in  form  unlike  any  shields  known  in  the  Mycenaean  period  or 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  69 

before  it,  are  winnowing  sieves  or  pans.  The  men  are  not  warriors, 
but  harvesters,  and  their  mouths  are  opened,  not  to  shout  defiance 
or  to  raise  the  hymn  of  victory,  but  to  sing  the  harvest  song.  The 
glad  autumn  festival  of  thanksgiving  is  represented,  and  the  artist 
has  been  able  to  indicate  something  of  the  joyousness  of  the 
occasion  by  the  attitudes  and  expressions  of  some,  at  least,  of 
the  participants.  The  religious  character  of  the  festival,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  influence  of  Egypt  upon  Crete,  is  shown  by  the 
sistrum  held  up  by  one  of  the  men,  perhaps  a  priest.  This  re- 
markable work,  carved  in  Cretan  steatite  and  found  in  Crete,  is 
one  of  the  finest  known  products  of  the  Cretan  art  in  the  Mycenaean 
age. 

Of  all  the  monuments  of  the  Mycenaean  age,  none  are  more  re- 
markable than  the  objects  of  gold  and  silver,  especially  those  of  gold. 
At  Troy,  Dr.  Schliemann  discovered  a  deposit  of  gold  Gold  and 
ornaments,  the  style  of  which  indicates  a  date  some  silver  work 
centuries  earlier  than  that  of  the  similar  objects  found  at  My- 
cenae. These  were  probably  not  made  at  Troy,  but  imported, 
perhaps  from  Crete.  At  Mochlos,  off  the  Cretan  coast,  Mr. 
Seager  has  found  remarkably  fine  examples  of  early  work  in 
gold ;  but  these  must  be  passed  over  with  merely  brief  mention 
in  a  rapid  survey  of  the  most  important  remains  of  the  art  of 
Prehellenic  Greece.  At  Mycenae  itself  great  deposits  of  gold- 
smith's work  were  found  in  six  graves  within  the  fortifications  of 
the  acropolis. 

Only  a  few  steps  inside  of  the  Lions'  Gate  is  a  large,  nearly  level 
circle  surrounded  by  an  enclosing  wall,  which  consists  of  two  con- 
centric rings  of  upright  slabs  about  one  metre  apart.  The  space 
between  the  rings,  which  is  now  for  the  most  part  empty,  was 
originally  filled  with  earth  and  small  stones,  over  which  horizontal 
slabs,  supported  on  the  mass  below  and  also  on  beams,  formed  a 
flat  covering.  Some  of  these  slabs  are  still  in  place.  The  two 
concentric  rings,  with  the  filling  of  earth  and  the  covering  of  slabs, 
formed,  then,  a  solid  encircling  wall  about  a  metre  thick  and  a 
metre  to  a  metre  and  a  half  high.  The  entrance  to  the  circular 


70  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

space  was  from  the  direction  of  the  Lions'  Gate  and  was  about  two 
metres  "wide.  The  space  itself  is  about  26.50111.  in  diameter. 
The  ground  was  evidently  artificially  levelled,  for  the  eastern  part 
of  the  encircling  wall  rests  directly  on  the  rock,  while  the  western 
part  is  supported  by  a  wall  of  "  Cyclopean  "  masonry  about  4  m. 
high.  The  purpose  of  this  circular  enclosure  is  not  clear,  but  it 
had  probably  some  religious  significance,  perhaps  connected  with 
the  graves  below.  Some  8  ft.  under  the  surface  of  the  circle 
Dr.  Schliemann  came  upon  a  round  structure  which  he  regarded 
with  great  probability  as  an  altar,  and  at  a  further  depth  of  3  ft. 
reached  the  top  of  a  grave,  which  was  itself  about  10  ft.  deep. 
Sh  ft  ^ve  otner  graves  were  found  later,  the  last  by 

graves  at  Stamatakis,  after  Schliemann's  excavations  were 
Mycenae  finished.  The  graves  vary  in  depth  from  3  to  5  m. 
They  are  rectangular,  the  largest  6.75  by  5m.,  the  smallest  3  by 
2.75  m.  in  size.  All  have  vertical  walls  of  small  stones  and  clay, 
and  originally  they  were  covered  with  slabs  of  slate  supported  on 
beams  that  were  laid  across  the  open  graves.  The  ends  of  some 
at  least  of  these  beams  were  protected  by  a  covering  of  copper. 
The  corpses,  with  their  rich  gold  ornaments  and  other  accessories, 
rested  on  a  layer  of  small  pebbles  at  the  bottom  of  the  graves. 
Above  these  graves  stood  the  stelae  already  mentioned,  three  stelae 
with  reliefs  over  grave  V  (as  numbered  by  Stamatakis),  and  one 
over  grave  II,  two  plain  stelae  each  over  graves  I  and  IV,  and  one 
over  grave  III.  In  grave  I  three  women  were  buried,  in  grave  II 
one  man,  in  grave  III  three  women  and  two  children,  in  grave  IV 
apparently  three  men  and  two  women,  in  grave  V  three  men,  and 
in  grave  VI  two  men.  The  sculptured  stelae  stood  only  over  the 
graves  of  men.  Weapons  were  found  in  all  the  graves  of  men,  but 
not  in  those  of  women.  Gold  objects  were  found  in  all  the  graves, 
but  those  in  graves  I,  II,  and  VI  were  simpler  than  those  in  graves 
III,  IV,  and  V.  Moreover,  in  graves  I,  II,  and  VI,  the  proportion 
of  gold  and  bronze  was  less,  and  the  proportion  of  pottery  greater 
than  in  III,  IV,  and  V.  Apparently  the  simpler  and  less  expensive 
burials  belong  to  a  time  later  than  the  more  splendid,  and  even  in 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  71 

those  graves  which  contained  several  corpses  the  burials  did  not 
all  take  place  at  the  same  time. 

In  these  graves  were  found  about  six  hundred  objects  of  gold, 
and  though  many  of  these  are  small,  others  are  of  great  size  and 
remarkable  workmanship.  Other  materials  of  objects  found  in 


FIG.  29.  —  Gold  face  mask  from  Mycenae.     Athens.     (Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's 
Ausgrabungen,  p.  257.) 

the  graves  are  silver,  bronze  or  copper,  amber,  agate,  glass,  ala- 
baster,  stone,   glazed   porcelain,    ivory,   bone,   wood,  ciassifica- 
ostrich  shells,   boar's   teeth,  oyster  shells,  and    terra-  tion  of  con- 
cotta.     The   weapons,    rings,    pins,    bracelets,    beads, 
kettles,  cups,  and  vases  are  evidently  such  as  were  worn  or  used 
in  life  by  the  deceased  and  their  contemporaries,  but  many  of  the 
gold  objects  are  so  thin  that  they  must  have  been  made  expressly 
for  the  adornment  of  the  dead.     Certainly  no  other  purpose  could 
be  served  by  the  five  golden  face  masks,  three  of  which  were 


72  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

found  in  grave  IV  and  two  in  grave  V.     The  gold,  though  thin, 
is  too  thick  to  have  been  shaped  by  pressing  it  over  the  actual 


FIG.  30.  — Gold  ornament  from  Mycenae.     (Photograph.) 

features  of  the  dead,  and  moreover,  in  the  finest  masks,  notably 
one  from  grave  IV  (Fig.  29),  details,  such  as  eyebrows 

.r  3.C6  fficLSKS 

and  mustache,  are  rendered  by  engraved  lines,  not 
in  relief,  as  they  would  have  been  had  the  gold  been  pressed  over 
the  face.  Evidently  a  hard  core  of  wood  or  the  like  was  em- 


FlG.  31.  —  Gold  ornaments  from  Mycenae.     (Schuchhardt,  Schliemanris 
Ausgrabungen,  p.  206.) 

ployed,  but  the  difference  between  the  masks  makes  it  quite  clear 
that  all  are  portraits. 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE 


73 


Eight  sheets  of  gold  about  0.45  to  0.60  m.  (ca.  14  to  18  in.) 
in  length,  were  found  in  such  positions  as  to  make  Ornaments 
it   probable  that  they  were  used  as  diadems.     They  of  thin  £old 
are  adorned  with  linear  patterns,  round  bosses,  and  dots  (Fig.  30 
from    grave    III),    and    the 
most  elaborate  of  all,  which 
has  a    crest    made  of  small 
separate  leaves  of  gold,  is  cov- 
ered with  a  pattern  of  circles 
in  which  are  small  raised  bosses 
and   what    look    like    daisies 
or  many-rayed  stars.     Smaller 
sheets  of  gold,  shaped  some- 
what like  a  leaf  (or  half  a  dia- 
dem), are  decorated  with  de- 
signs like  those  of  the  diadems, 
with    which     they    evidently 
formed  sets  or  garnitures  (Fig. 
31    from    grave   III).     Other 
large  objects  of  thin  gold  are 
breastplates,  if  that  is  really 
the    proper  name    for   them, 
sword  belts,  and  a  remarkable 
lion's  head,  which  is  unfortu- 
nately much  flattened  and  dis- 
torted.   A  bull's  head  of  silver, 
wrought  with  wonderful  skill  (Fig.  32),  was  a  rhyton,  or  drinking 
horn,  probably  for  ritual  purposes,  as  was  also  the  golden  lion's 
head  just  mentioned. 

The  lesser  objects  of  thin  gold  are,  like  most  of  the  objects  just 
described,  intended  purely  for  ornament,  with  the  exception  of 
sword  belts  and  some  disks  and  strips  of  gold,  which  once  formed 
scales  for  weighing  small  commodities.  Some  of  the  ornaments 
consist  of  very  thin  sheets,  cut  into  the  form  of  laurel  leaves  and 
riveted  together ;  many  are  disks  adorned  with  conventional  rep- 


FlG.  32.  —  Silver  bull's  head  from  My- 
cenae. (Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's 
Ausgrabungen,  Fig.  248.) 


74 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


resentations  of  shells,  polyps,  or  butterflies,  or  with  patterns  of 
curves  that  look  like  coiled  wire,  (Figs.  34,  35,  36)  ;  and  one  (five 
specimens  of  which  were  found)  represents  an  altar  (Fig.  33).  On 


FIG.  35.  FIG.  36. 

FIGS.  33-36.  —  Gold  ornaments  from  Mycenae.     (Photographs  ) 

the  sides  of  the  altar  are  doves  ;  the  sacred  pillar,  with  the  horns 
of  consecration,  is  seen  three  times  in  the  lower  part,  and  on  the 
top  is  a  curious  vessel  or  utensil,  now  known  from  discoveries 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  75 

in  Crete  to  have  been  used  in  Minoan  and  Mycenaean 
religious  rites.  Still  other  ornaments  represent  various  birds 
and  animals,  others  a  nude  female  divinity  with  a  dove  or  doves, 
and  one  (in  two  specimens)  a  seated  figure  clad  in  a  flounced  gar- 
ment. 

It  is  a  generally  accepted  belief  that  the  face  masks  were  placed 
directly  over  the  faces  of  the  dead  men,  the  diadems  on  the  heads 
of  the  women,  and  the  smaller  thin  gold  ornaments  were  sewed 
upon  clothing.  There  are,  however,  indications  that  the  surface 
on  which  these  objects  were  fastened  was  hard  and  flat,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  all  the  thin  gold  objects,  as  well  as  the  silver 
bull's  head,  were  fastened  upon  wooden  coffins,  which  have  de- 
cayed and  left  no  traces.1  Positive  proof  of  either  theory  is 
perhaps  hardly  possible  except  by  the  discovery  of  other  similar 
graves. 

Of  the  eleven  gold  drinking  vessels  found  in  these  graves  sev- 
eral are  simple  cups  with  one  handle,  others  have  the  same  form 
with  ornamentation  of  arches,  lines,  or  rosettes,  and  cups  an^ 
still  others  have  a  stem  like  that  of  a  goblet,  the  cup  vases 
itself  being  in  these  instances  of  a  wide  and  flaring  shape.  One 
cup,  shaped  like  a  tall  goblet,  has  horizontal  handles,  upon 
which  birds  are  sitting.  From  each  handle  a  straight  band  of 
gold  descends  and  is  riveted  to  the  outer  rim  of  the  disk  at  the 
foot,  as  if  to  strengthen  the  vessel.  Something  like  this,  though 
larger  and  more  elaborate,  was  the  cup  of  Nestor  described 
in  the  Iliad,  XI,  632-635.  Another  striking  vessel  is  of 
silver,  with  a  short  stem.  It  is  adorned  with  inlaid  work  ot 
gold,  a  single  design,  representing  a  low  flowerpot  with  a  plant 
growing  in  it,  being  repeated  three  times  on  the  side  of  the 
cup.  A  very  striking  vessel  is  a  large  alabaster  vase,  about 
0.15  m.  high,  with  three  freely  curving  handles  that  rise  above  the 
rim. 

Among  the  many  precious  objects  found  in  grave  IV,  which  is 
the  largest  and  richest  of  all,  are  two  gold  rings  with  large  bezels 
1 B.  StaSs,  *Etf>.  *Apx-  1907,  pp.  32-60. 


76  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

(about  0.044  m.  long).  On  these  bezels  are  remarkably  fine 
examples  of  engraved  work  (intaglio).  The  first  shows  two  men 
in  a  chariot  drawn  by  galloping  horses.  One  man  ap- 
parently holds  the  reins,  though  these  are  not  rep- 
resented, while  the  other  shoots  an  arrow  at  a  stag  that  is 
bounding  away  and  turning  its  head  to  look  at  its  pursuers.  On 
the  second  ring  is  a  scene  of  battle.  One  man  is  sitting, 
doubtless  wounded,  on  the  ground,  while  before  him  a  mighty 
warrior  is  about  to  slay  an  antagonist  whom  he  has  seized  by 
the  shoulder  and  forced  to  his  knees.  Still  another  combatant, 
armed  with  a  spear  and  protected  by  a  long  shield,  seems  likely 
to  decide  the  combat  against  the  victor  of  the  moment  (Fig.  37). 


FIG.  37. —  Bezels  of  gold  rings  from  Mycenae.     (Schuchhardt,  Schliemanrfs 
Ausgrabungen,  p.  252.) 

Some  of  the  long  bronze  swords  found  in  the  graves  are 
adorned  with  figures  of  running  animals  finely  wrought  in  relief ; 
Dagger  but  ^ar  more  remarkable  and  elaborate  are  five  dagger 
blades  blades,  the  adornment  of  which  is  not  wrought  di- 
rectly in  the  bronze  of  the  blades  themselves,  but  in  separate 
plates  inserted  in  the  sides  of  the  blades  ;  two  of  these  were  found 
in  grave  IV.  On  one  side  of  the  first  blade  (Fig.  38)  are  five  men 
fighting  with  a  lion,  while  two  other  lions  are  running  away,  and 
on  the  other  side  a  lion  is  pulling  down  a  deer  or  gazelle  and  four 
more  animals  of  the  same  kind  are  escaping.  The  figures  are 
here  not  worked  in  relief,  but  are  inlaid.  They  are  of  gold, 
for  the  most  part  yellow,  but  the  lions'  manes  and  the  spots  on 
the  deer  are  of  red  gold,  and  the  shields  and  scanty  clothing  of 
the  men  are  almost  as  white  as  silver.  Evidently  the  workmen 


WtEHELLENlC   GREECE 


77 


understood  the  use  of  various  alloys  and  were  excellent  designers 
and  extremely  skilful  metal-workers.     On  the  second  dagger  are 

three  lions  running  one  behind  the 
other.  Whereas  the  figures  of  the 
first  dagger  are  inlaid,  these  lions 
were  wrought  in  relief  on  the  plate, 
which  was  afterwards  inserted  in 
the  blade,  and  the  relief  was  then 
covered  with  thin  gold-leaf.  The 
manes  are  colored  red,  and  the  lines 
on  the  legs  and  flanks  of  the  lions 
are  of  lighter  gold  than  the  rest  of 
their  bodies.  Three  equally  remark- 
able daggers  were  found  in  grave  V. 
One  of  them  has  on  each  side  two 
cats,  or  perhaps  panthers,  hunting 
four  ducks  among  aquatic  plants  by 
a  river.  The  colors  are  varied  by 
the  use  of  different  alloys,  as  was 
the  case  on  the  blades  previously 
described.  On  the  second  blade  is 
a  design  of  flowers,  and  on  the  third 
a  spiral  pattern.  In  this  last,  the 
plate  set  in  the  blade  is  of  gold,  and 
the  design  is  made  with  enamel,  by 
the  niello  process.  Three  or  foui 
rivets  fastened  the  blades  to  the 
handles,  which  were  of  wood,  and 
were  in  some  cases,  at  least,  covered 
with  thin  gold  and  adorned  with  rich 
linear  patterns.  At  the  end  of  the 
hilt  was  a  large  knob.  When  the  hilt 
was  of  gold,  the  knob  was  also  gold. 
The  terracotta  vases  found  in 
these  tombs  exhibit  two  distinct 


78  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

technical  methods.  Some  are  painted  with  dull  dark  color  on  the 
light  buff  or  reddish  ground  of  the  clay,  others  in  lustrous  dark 
color.  Those  painted  with  dull  color  are  decorated  for  the  most 
part  with  horizontal  bands  and  simple  patterns  of 
straight  or  curved  lines,  while  the  decoration  of  those 
painted  with  lustrous  color  consists  chiefly  of  marine  plants  and 
animals.  In  graves  I,  II,  and  VI  the  two  kinds  of  vases  were  found 
together,  one  vase  from  grave  III  has  leaves  among  its  linear  pat- 
terns, and  one  from  grave  VI,  though  decorated  almost  entirely  with 
linear  patterns,  has  ivy  leaves  about  its  lower  part.  These  two  vases 
are  painted  with  lustrous  color.  On  one  vase  from  grave  VI,  which 
is  painted  with  dull  color,  various  birds  are  represented,  and  on 
another  from  the  same  grave  is  a  creature  like  a  polyp  with  a  head 
resembling  that  of  a  bird.  It  is  evident  therefore  that  the  two  sys- 
tems, linear  decoration  in  dull  color  and  naturalistic  decoration 
in  lustrous  color,  were  practised  at  the  same  time.  Light  decora- 
tion on  a  dark  ground  is  seen  on  a  larger  water  jar  from  grave  V. 
Here  bands  and  semicircles  are  painted  in  white  on  the  reddish 
ground  of  the  clay.  In  grave  I  two  rude  terracotta  figurines  of  a 
style  common  at  Mycenae  and  other  places  were  found.  The 
arms  are  raised  so  that  they  look  like  a  crescent.  The  figurines 
are  painted  with  red  stripes  on  the  buff  ground,  perhaps  in  rude 
imitation  of  drapery. 

These  graves  and  their  contents  are  of  great  importance.     The 
vast  number  of  gold  objects  and  their  remarkable  technical  excel- 

.  lence  show  that  at  a  time  before  the  introduction  of 

Importance 

of  the  iron  the  inhabitants  of  Mycenae  had  attained  a  high 

graves  degree  of  wealth  and  luxury.     The   civilization   dis- 

closed by  all  the  graves  is  the  same,  but  greater  wealth  and  luxury 
is  evident  in  graves  III,  IV,  and  V  than  in  I,  II,  and  VI.  Prob- 
ably there  is  a  difference  in  date,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  either  group  is  more  than  a  century  or  two  earlier  than 
the  other.  Which  is  the  earlier  it  is  hard  to  tell ;  but  the  terra- 
cotta figurines  from  grave  I  and  the  birds  on  the  vase  from  grave 
VI  resemble  objects  found  elsewhere  which  are  certainly  later  than 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  79 

these  shaft  tombs.  It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  simpler 
tombs  are  in  this  case  the  later,  that  there  was,  in  other  words,  a 
period  of  decline  at  Mycenae  between  the  first  and  the  second 
group  of  burials.  That  this  decline  was  only  temporary  is  made 
evident  by  the  splendor  of  the  "Treasury  of  Atreus  "  and  the  im- 
portance of  various  other  monuments  which  are  clearly  of  later 
date  than  the  shaft  graves.  For  the  shaft  graves  are  evidently 
earlier  than  the  circular  wall  above  them,  and  this  appears  to  be 
approximately  contemporaneous  with  the  Lions'  Gate  and  the 
"  Treasury  of  Atreus."  The  shaft  graves,  by  their  position  and 
surroundings,  give  valuable  information  regarding  the  relative 
age  of  different  products  of  Mycenaean  art.  They  show,  among 
other  things,  that  the  art  of  the  goldsmith  reached  its  highest 
development  at  an  early  date,  before  the  latest  development  of 
Mycenaean  pottery.  It  is  possible  that  the  gold  objects  found 
in  the  shaft  graves  may  be  imported,  in  which  case  there  is  little 
doubt  that  they  came  from  Crete,  the  centre  of  civilization  in  the 
Aegean  regions  at  this  time  (cp.  p.  69). 

Outside  of  the  circle  under  which  were  the  shaft  graves,  appar- 
ently in  the  ruins  of  a  house,  was  found  a  hoard  of  golden  vessels 
and  other  objects,  among  them  four 
cups  of  graceful  shape,  with  high  foot 
and  two  handles.  More  important 

than  these  is  a  gold  ring 
Gold  rings 

with    a    large,   flat   bezel 

(0.035  m-  or  Ii7g~  m-  l°ng)>  on  which 
is  very  finely  engraved  a  strange  scene, 
undoubtedly  of  religious  significance. 

'       FIG.  39.  —  Gold  ring   from  My- 

as  is  made  evident  by  the  symbol  of  cenae.  (Schuchhardt,  Schiie- 
the  double  axe  in  the  centre  and  the  mann's  Amgrabungen,  p. 
sun  and  moon  at  the  top  (Fig.  39). 

A  second  gold  ring  found  in  the  same  place  has  several  bull's 
heads  engraved  in  its  bezel.  In  these  rings,  and  others  found  else- 
where, the  engraving  is  done  by  hand  with  a  sharp  tool.  The 
rings  were  not  intended  for  use  as  seals,  for  the  figures  are  so  en- 


8o 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


graved  that  the  representation  as  seen  on  the  ring  is  correct,  and 
is  reversed  in  an  impression. 

Many  fine  specimens  of  Mycenaean  metal  work  have  been  found 
in  various  places,  —  at  Troy,  in  Crete,  in  Thessaly,  and  elsewhere, 
Other  works  —  though  no  inlaid  work  has  been  found  to  rival  that 
of  metal  of  the  dagger  blades  from  Mycenae.  Two  gold  cups, 
found  at  Vaphio,  in  Laconia,  are  of  unusual  beauty  and  interest 
(Fig.  40).  On  one  of  these  the  hunting  of  wild  cattle  is  repre- 
sented, on  the  other  tame  cattle  appear.  The  figures  are  formed 


FlG.  40.  —  Gold  cups  from  Vaphio.     (Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's  Excavations.) 

by  the  repouss6  process,  and  the  work  is  exceedingly  skilful  and 
delicate.  The  artist  was  also  evidently  a  close  observer  of  nature, 
though  the  attitudes  of  the  cattle  are  animated  and  lively  rather 
than  correct.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  case  of  the  gal- 
loping bull  and  in  that  of  the  bull  caught  in  the  net.  Comparison 
with  the  steatite  vase  from  Hagia  Triada  and  with  other  works  of 
undoubted  Cretan  origin  makes  it  probable  that  these  beautiful 
vases  were  also  made  in  Crete.  One  further  example  of  Myce- 
naean metal  work  which  cannot  be  passed  over  is  the  fragment  of 
a  silver  vessel,  found  at  Mycenae,  on  which  the  siege  of  a  city  is 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE 


81 


represented  (Fig.  41).  The  fragment  is  interesting,  not  only  as  a 
specimen  of  pictorial  sculpture  on  a  small  scale  which  is  unparal- 
leled in  Greek  art  before  the  Hellenistic  period,  but  also  because 
it  represents  the  bows,  slings,  and  shields  of  the  lightly  clad 
Mycenaean  warriors,  and  the  masonry  of  the  city  wall,  and  the 
architectural  form  of  the  flat-roofed  houses.  Undoubtedly  the  per- 
spective is  faulty,  especially 
as  regards  the  size  of  the 
women  who  are  encouraging 
their  protectors  from  the 
wall ;  nevertheless  the  whole 
scene  is  clearly  represented, 
not  the  actual  combat  alone, 
but  also  its  surroundings. 
Pictorial  representations  of 
this  kind  are  met  with  in 
Assyrian  reliefs,  in  late  Greek 
and  Roman  works,  and  in 
the  relief  sculptures  of  the 
Renaissance  and  modern 
times,  attaining  their  highest 
excellence,  perhaps,  in  the 
bronze  doors  of  the  baptistery  at  Florence,  by  Ghiberti,  but  they 
are  unknown  in  Greek  art  of  the  strictly  classical  period.  A  com- 
parison with  the  reliefs  of  the  so-called  Nereid  monument,  from 
Xanthus,  or  with  those  of  the  monument  at  Gjolbaschi,  shows 
the  difference  between  the  Mycenaean  and  the  classical  treatment 
of  similar  subjects.  The  Mycenaean  artist  brings  before  us  the 
battle  as  it  actually  takes  place,  on  uneven  ground,  over  which  the 
troops  are  scattered  as  occasion  demands,  without  regard  to  artistic 
grouping;  whereas  the  classical  artist  is  confined  by  the  conven- 
tions of  his  art,  represents  the  attacking  warriors  all  on  one  plane, 
and  eliminates  entirely  the  landscape  background  ;  only  the  wall? 
and  towers  are  represented,  for  without  these  the  scene  would 
not  be  understood.  This  remarkable  little  fragment  illustrates 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  6 


FlG.  41.  —  Silver  fragment  from  Mycenae. 


82  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

admirably  the  naturalness  and  realism  of  Mycenaean  art,  and  shows 
at  the  same  time,  both  in  its  details  and  in  its  general  conception, 
how  greatly  Mycenaean  art  differs  in  spirit  from  that  of  classical 
Greece. 

Somewhat  akin  to  the  art  of  sculpture  is  that  of  gem  cutting 
or  seal  engraving,  which  was  much  practised  in  the  Mycenaean 
age.  In  the  time  of  the  twelfth  Egyptian  dynasty  (2000  to  1788 
B.C.),  which  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Early  Mycenaean  "  period, 
Seals  and  tne  material  used  by  the  gem  engravers  was  soft, 
Gems  usually  steatite,  and  the  designs  were  rude  and  en- 

graved or  bored  by  hand,  as  has  already  been  said  (p.  52).  Work 
of  this  kind  continued  to  be  produced  throughout  the  Mycenaean 
period,  but  such  soft  stones,  engraved  by  hand,  were  wrought,  in 
the  time  of  developed  Mycenaean  art,  only  by  inferior  workmen 
for  the  use  of  poor  customers,  and  differ  from  the  contemporary 
works  in  hard  stones  chiefly  by  reason  of  their  inferior  workman- 
ship and  the  choice  of  unimportant  subjects.  In  the  decay  of 
Mycenaean  civilization  this  style  continued,  whereas  the  better 
work,  in  hard  stones,  was  no  longer  produced. 

All  the  better  gems  of  the  developed  Mycenaean  period  are 
wrought  with  the  wheel  in  hard  stones.  The  stones  used  are 
carnelian,  chalcedony,  agate,  sardonyx,  amethyst,  crystal ;  also 
hematite,  porphyry,  serpentine,  jasper,  and,  occasionally,  basalt. 
They  were  probably  produced  at  all  the  important  places.  The 
wheel,  which  enables  the  workmen  to  cut  gems  by  means  of  hard 
sand  on  a  revolving  bit  of  moist  wood,  and  also  by  means  of  a 
revolving  drill,  had  long  been  in  use  in  the  East,  and  was  doubtless 
nierely  introduced,  not  invented,  by  the  Mycenaean  artists.  Gold 
rings  were  engraved  by  hand,  since  their  material  is  not  very 
hard.  Some  glass  imitations  of  gems  were  made  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  Mycenaean  period,  but  those  that  are  known  are  for 
the  most  part  ill  preserved. 

The  best  engravings  are  cut  in  the  bezels  of  finger  rings, 
chiefly  gold,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  which  has  been 
described  above  (p.  76;  see  also  p.  79).  These  rings  are  too 


.      PREHELLENIC    GREECE  83 

small  for  even  the  little  finger  of  a  man,  and  must  therefore  have 
been  intended  for  women,  or  to  be  worn  on  a  chain  or  cord. 
Some  rings  entirely  of  stone  have  been  found,  but  metal  rings 
with  stones  set  in  them  are  nearly,  or  quite,  unknown.  The 
engraved  stones 1  regularly  have  the  form  of .  flat  beads.  They 
have  a  hole  bored  through  them  in  the  direction  of  their  greatest 
dimension,  and  were  worn,  with  other  beads,  strung  on  chains  for 
the  neck  or  arm.  Apparently,  then,  they  were  amulets  or  mere 
ornaments,  rather  than  seals,  even  though  at  some  times  and 
places  their  use  as  seals  may  have  been  in  vogue.  The  stones 
were  most  frequently  circular,  with  the  design  cut  only  on  one 
side,  or  elliptical  (lentoid),  or  they  have  somewhat  the  form  of  a 
cylinder  thicker  at  the  middle  than  at  the  ends.  Stones  of  this 
last  shape  are  perforated  lengthwise.  Some  stones  are  rectan- 
gular, with  rounded  corners,  and  occasionally  other  forms  occur. 
Stones  of  these  common  shapes  were  in  use  in  early  times  in 
Babylonia,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  but  are  usually  of  poor  quality  and 
not  finely  wrought.  They  were  probably  used  in  those  countries, 
not  as  seals,  but  merely  as  amulets,  and  it  is  doubtless  from  those 
countries  that  their  use  was  adopted  by  the  Prehellenic  inhab- 
itants of  Greece.  The  cylinder,  which  was  the  form  of  the 
oriental  seal,  the  scarab,  and  the  scaraboid,  were  not  adopted. 

The  designs  of  most  Mycenaean  gems  represent  animals. 
Among  these,  lions  and  horned  cattle  occur  most  frequently, 
and  show  the  best  workmanship,  but  deer  and  wild  goats  are  not 
uncommon.  The  lion  is  evidently  not  merely  borrowed  from  the 
art  of  other  peoples,  but  studied  from  life,  —  a  fact  that  seems  to 
indicate  a  real  acquaintance,  not  merely  casual  intercourse,  with 
northern  Africa  on  the  part  of  the  people  among  whom  the  gems 
were  made,  unless  lions  existed  in  Greece  in  those  days. 

Other  gems  bear  religious  representations.  A  draped  goddess 
appears  both  seated  and  standing.  She  has  various  attributes, 
and  has  been  interpreted  as  Artemis,  Aphrodite,  and  Demeter. 

1  Mycenaean  engraved  stones,  or  gems,  were  formerly  called  Inselsteine. 
"  island  stones,"  as  most  of  them  were  found  on  the  islands. 


84  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

A  nude  goddess  appears  but  rarely,  and  then  only  through  Oriental 
influence.  When  the  goddess  stands  between  two  lions,  she  is 
naturally  interpreted  as  Rhea.  The  small  armed  idol  in  the 
upper  left-hand  part  of  the  engraving  on  the  gold  ring  from 
Mycenae  (p.  79)  is  perhaps  a  Palladium,  or  primitive  represen- 
tation of  the  goddess  known  in  historical  times  as  Athena.  A 
male  deity  also  appears,  sometimes  leading  a  griffin,  sometimes 
standing  between  two  partly  human  creatures  (demons),  and  once 
between  two  lions.  It  is  natural  to  identify  him,  at  least  in  some 
of  these  cases,  with  the  supreme  god,  the  later  Zeus.  Another, 
lower,  order  of  beings  combines  the  forms  of  men  and  beasts. 
They  have  usually  the  form  of  a  man  with  the  head  of  a  beast, 
most  frequently  that  of  a  lion.  They  seem  to  be  spirits  or  demons 
of  the  chase,  and  are  often  represented  with  the  skin  of  a  beast, 
perhaps  a  bull,  thrown  over  them.  Some  other  combinations  of 
human  and  animal  forms  also  occur. 

The  sphinx,  both  winged  and  without  wings,  occurs  rarely  in 
Mycenaean  art,  less  rarely  on  glass  and  gold  than  on  gems.  The 
griffin  is  not  uncommon  on  gems,  and  sometimes  two  griffins  are 
placed  opposite  each  other  in  heraldic  fashion.  The  griffin,  a 
combination  of  lion  and  eagle,  was  borrowed  from  the  East,  but 
its  form  was  further  developed  by  Mycenaean  art ;  whether  the 
same  is  true  of  the  sphinx,  the  combination  of  lion  and  man,  is  as 
yet  uncertain,  as  its  occurrence  in  Egypt  or  elsewhere  before  the 
Mycenaean  period  is  not  established.  Various  representations 
pertaining  to  the  cult  of  the  gods  occur,  such  as  altars,  altar 
tables,  sacred  enclosures,  and  columns.  There  are  some  scenes 
of  male  worship,  but  representations  of  female  worship,  among 
which  that  of  the  gold  ring  (Fig.  39)  is  the  most  remarkable,  are 
more  numerous.  Hunting  scenes,  especially  bull  hunts,  and 
scenes  of  war  are  not  uncommon,  and  one  or  two  other  scenes 
of  common  life  are  known. 

The  style  of  Mycenaean  gems  is  in  general  picturesque  rather 
than  sculptural.  There  is  great  freedom  of  motion,  and  more 
attention  is  paid  to  scenery  and  other  accessories  than  in  classical 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE 


Greek  art.  Exactness  and  accuracy  are  less  sought  after  than 
liveliness  and  expression.  There  is  little  evidence  of  study  of  the 
osseous  structure  of  men  and  animals  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  more 
obvious  and  external  elements  of  the  form,  such  as  the  muscles 
and  the  female  breasts,  are  unduly  emphasized.  . 
The  space  at  the  disposal  of  the  artist  is,  as  a 
rule,  well  filled,  though  not  always  without 
detriment  to  the  beauty  of  the  design.  The 
foreshortening  and  perspective  are  poor.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  freshness  and  vigor  of  the  design, 
the  originality  of  conception,  and  in  many  in- 
stances the  fine  technical  execution,  are  such 
as  to  give  the  gems  a  place  among  the  most 
interesting  products  of  Mycenaean  art.  No- 
where more  clearly  than  in  the  gems  is  the 
nature  of  Mycenaean  art  made  manifest  (Fig. 
42).  The  artists  who  designed  them  received 
many  incentives  and  much  inspiration  from 
Oriental  art,  but  they  were  not  content  to  imi- 
tate. What  they  received  from  the  East  they 
adapted  and  transformed,  as  did  the  Greeks 
of  the  historical  period.  In  this  respect  the 
Mycenaean  artists  are  the  precursors  of  the 
great  masters  of  Hellenic  Greece,  however 
much  their  works  may  differ  in  form  and  spirit 
from  the  products  of  the  later  art. 

Mycenaean  vases  fall  into  two  main  divisions,   FIG.  42.  —  Mycenaean 
(i)  those   decorated   with   dull   (matf)   color, 
Mycenaean     and  (2)  those  decorated  with  lus- 
vases  trous  varnish  (Firniss).     They  are 

alike  in  one  respect,  that  they  are  (with  the 
exceptions  mentioned  below)  decorated  with  dark  color  on  a 
light  ground,  and  their  decorations  are  virtually  monochrome. 
This  separates  them  from  the  polychrome  Kamares  ware,  as 
well  as  from  the  various  wares  the  ground  color  of  which  is 


gems.  (Furtwang- 
ler,  Antike  Gemmen, 
PI.  II,  32,  24,  'E(/>. 
'Apx.  1888,  PI.  X, 

2,3-) 


86  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

dark.     They  are  also  alike  in  their  general  tendency  to  rotund, 
full  forms.1 

1  Furtwangler  and  Loeschcke,  Mykenische  Vasen,  1886,  divided  Myce- 
naean vases  into  two  divisions:  vases  with  dull  painting  (Mattmalerei)  and 
vases  with  glaze  varnish  painting  {Firnissmalerei),  Within  the  first  division 
they  recognized  two  groups :  (I,  a)  vases  of  red  clay,  a  polished  surface,  some- 
times yellowish  or  greenish,  and  ornaments  in  red  or  purplish  brown,  with 
occasionally  some  white,  and  (I,  £)  vases  of  light  clay,  with  unpolished  surface, 
and  ornaments  in  purplish  brown.  Some  of  the  coarser  vases  of  this  group 
are  hand  made;  all  the  others  are  made  on  the  wheel.  The  second  division 
forms  four  classes.  All  are  made  on  the  wheel.  In  class  I  the  clay  is  coarse, 
and  the  entire  vase  is  covered  with  a  slightly  lustrous  glaze,  on  which  the 
ornaments,  almost  exclusively  floral,  are  painted  in  dull  white  and  dark  red. 
In  class  II  the  clay  is  coarse,  but  covered  with  a  coating  or  slip  of  fine  clay, 
which  forms  a  whitish  or  yellowish  brown  surface.  On  this  the  ornament,  of 
geometrical  or  floral  patterns,  is  painted  with  lustrous  dark  brown  color. 
Occasionally  some  white  is  added.  In  class  III  the  clay  is  fine  and  well 
levigated;  the  surface,  of  a  warm  yellowish  color,  is  lustrous  and  smooth. 
The  decoration,  which  consists  chiefly  of  marine  plants  and  animals,  is  painted 
in  lustrous  color,  varying  from  yellow  to  brownish  black.  Occasionally  white 
is  added.  In  class  IV  the  surface  is  greenish  or  dull  yellow,  sometimes  yel- 
lowish red,  and  usually  dull,  not  lustrous.  The  lustrous  color  of  the  ornament 
is  black  or  yellowish  brown,  sometimes  burnt  red.  The  color  is  less  lustrous 
than  in  class  III.  Large  figures  of  quadrupeds  and  human  beings  occur. 
Furtwangler  and  Loeschcke  regarded  the  first  division  as  earlier  than  the 
second.  In  the  latter  they  regarded  classes  I  and  II  as  contemporary  and 
earlier  than  class  III,  which  was  followed  by  class  IV.  Class  I  is  now  seen  to 
consist  of  vases  made  in  Crete  (which,  when  found  at  Mycenae,  are  imported), 
and  the  same  is  probably  true  of  most  specimens  of  class  II.  Furtwangler  and 
Loeschcke  recognized  that  the  vases  with  dull  color  were  made  in  many 
places,  but  thought  the  invention  of  glaze  or  lustrous  color  was  due  to  the 
people  of  Mycenae,  and  that  the  pottery  with  decoration  in  such  color  was 
made  at  Mycenae.  The  lustrous  color  has,  however,  elsewhere  (see  below, 
p.  87)  been  found  on  vases  much  earlier  than  many  of  those  painted  with  dull 
color;  the  lustrous  color  cannot,  therefore,  be  a  Mycenaean  invention.  More- 
over, pottery  with  lustrous  decoration  has  been  found  at  many  places,  and 
local  varieties  of  shapes  and  decoration  are  observed,  showing  that  Mycenae 
was  by  no  means  the  only  place  of  manufacture.  The  term  "  Mycenaean,"  as 
applied  to  pottery,  is  now  sometimes  limited  to  classes  III  and  IV,  which  were 
produced  when  Mycenae  was  at  the  height  of  its  power,  and  to  ware  which 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE  87 

When  executed  in  dull  color,  the  decoration  consists  of  lines, 
generally  curved,  plants,  and  occasionally  animals.  In  general, 
it  resembles  that  of  the  vases  from  Thera  (p.  51  f.),  and,  as  a  whole, 
the  vases  with  decoration  in  dull  color  are  earlier  than  those 
decorated  with  lustrous  varnish,  though  the  two  classes  have 
sometimes  been  found  together.  In  Crete  and  some  of  the  is- 
lands the  lustrous  varnish  appears  before  the  Mycenaean  period, 
earlier,  in  fact,  than  the  monochrome  decoration  in  dull  color, 
but  in  continental  Greece,  Aegina,  and  some  of  the  other  islands 
the  dull  color  is  earlier,  and  the  lustrous  varnish  does  not  appear 
until  Mycenaean  times.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the  lustrous 
varnish,  which  is  the  distinguishing  peculiarity  of  Greek  vases, 
and  which  modern  imitators  have  not  been  able  to  produce,  was 

closely  resembles  these.  Classes  I  and  II  may  then  be  classed  as  "  Protomy- 
cenaean." 

Some  of  the  conclusions  reached  by  Furtwangler  and  Loeschcke  have  been 
modified  by  later  discoveries;  but  their  classification  is  so  generally  known  that 
it  is  employed  by  most  writers  on  Mycenaean  pottery.  Two  other  classifications 
of  the  vases  with  lustrous  paint,  based  on  the  style,  rather  than  the  technique, 
of  the  decorations,  have  been  proposed  by  P.  Wolters  and  by  J.  C.  Hoppin 
(  The  Argive  Heraeum,  Vol.  II,  pp.  74  ff.).  According  to  both  of  these,  class  I 
remains  the  same  as  in  the  classification  of  P"urtwangler  and  Loeschcke. 
Class  II  also  remains  the  same,  but  the  fact  that  the  style  of  the  paintings  is 
naturalistic,  not  conventional,  is  emphasized.  Hoppin  divides  class  II  into 
subdivisions  I  and  2,  and  puts  in  2,  on  account  of  their  naturalistic  or  pic- 
torial style,  some  vases  included  by  the  others  in  class  III.  Class  III,  accord- 
ing to  Wolters,  consists  of  two  subdivisions,  the  first  of  which  differs  from 
class  II  only  in  its  more  delicate  execution  (these  are  the  vases  of  Hoppin's 
class  II,  2),  while  in  III,  2  the  greatest  technical  excellence  is  associated  with 
conventionalized  design.  Hoppin  also  makes  two  subdivisions  of  class  III, 
his  III,  i  being  the  same  as  Wolters's  III,  2,  while  III,  2  consists  of  vases  with 
extremely  conventionalized  ornamentation  and  of  inferior  technical  execution. 
Hoppin's  III,  2  is  the  same  as  Wolters's  IV,  I,  and  class  IV,  according  to 
Hoppin,  is  the  same  as  class  IV,  2,  according  to  Wolters,  and  class  IV,  accord- 
ing to  Furtwangler  and  Loeschcke. 

The  most  common  kinds  of  Mycenaean  vases  are  those  of  Furtwangler  and 
Loeschcke,  class  III  (Hoppin,  class  III,  2;  Wolters,  class  IV,  i),  and  Furt- 
wangler and  Loeschcke,  class  IV  (Hoppin,  class  IV ;  Wolters,  class  IV,  2), 


88  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

invented  in  Crete.  Its  use,  however,  spread  to  all  parts  of  the 
Greek  world  in  Mycenaean  times,  and  the  characteristic  My- 
cenaean vases  are  those  decorated  with  lustrous  varnish.1 

The  better  Mycenaean  vases  are  made  of  fine  clay,  with  an  even 
and  brilliant  polished  surface,  which  has  in  the  best  period  a  yel- 
low color.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Mycenaean  epoch  the  surface 
of  the  vases  becomes  gray  or  reddish,  and  its  polish  is  less  bril- 
liant. The  vases  exhibit  great  variety  of  form,  and  more  than 
one  hundred  different  shapes  may  be  distinguished.  One  of  the 
most  characteristic  and  widely  distributed  shapes  is  the  false 
amphora  (Biigelkanne),  a  jar  with  two  handles,  which  meet  over 
the  projecting  neck,  where  one  might  naturally  expect  to  find 
the  mouth,  while  the  real  mouth  is  formed  by  a  small  upright 
spout.  Vases  of  this  shape  are  usually  simply  decorated  with  lines. 
Another  popular,  and  very  graceful,  shape  is  a  rather  flat  two- 
handled  goblet  with  a  high  stem.  Vases  of  this  shape  are 
regularly  decorated  with  rings  on  the  foot  and  stem  and  a  con- 
ventionalized cuttlefish  on  each  side  of  the  bowl  (Fig.  43).  Fun- 
nel-shaped vases  are  common,  and  are  usually  decorated  with 
murex  shells.  Other  favorite  shapes  are  :  a  beaked  jug  (Schnabel- 
kanne)  •  a  low,  small  jar  or  pyxis  with  three  small  handles ;  and 
a  three-handled  pear-shaped  vessel  on  a  high  stem. 

Linear  decoration  is  common  on  vases  throughout  the  Myce- 
naean epoch,  but  rectilinear  designs  are  generally  avoided,  the 
linear  decoration  consisting  either  of  parallel  lines  running  hori- 
zontally about  the  entire  vase  or  of  curvilinear  patterns,  such  as 
circles  and  spirals.  But  the  most  characteristic  Mycenaean  de- 
signs are  derived  from  nature,  especially  from  marine  plants  and 

1  Some  of  the  earliest  vases  with  lustrous  varnish  differ  from  the  rest  in  being 
covered  entirely  with  the  black  varnish,  on  which  the  decoration  is  applied  in 
white  or  reddish  brown.  These  are  in  so  far  not  properly  Mycenaean  as  they 
seem,  at  least  when  found  in  continental  Greece,  to  be  imported  from  Crete 
(see  p.  48),  and  this  may  also  be  true  of  vases  decorated  in  this  manner  which 
have  been  found  in  Cyprus  ;  but  at  any  rate,  some  of  them  belong  to  the 
early  part  of  the  Mycenaean  epoch,  the  time  of  the  shaft  graves  at  Mycenae. 


PREHELLENIC    GREECE  89 

animals.  The  cuttlefish,  murex,  nautilus,  and  several  kinds  of 
seaweed  are  represented  in  a  very  lively  and  naturalistic  manner. 
These  naturalistic  designs  become,  however,  more  and  more  con- 
ventionalized, and  the  long  tentacles  of  the  cuttlefish  develop 
into  a  pattern  of  elongated  spirals.  This  is  especially  noticeable 
on  some  terracotta  burial  chests  decorated  in  Mycenaean  style, 
which  have  been  found  in  Crete.  Birds,  especially  sea-birds,  and 
occasionally  human  figures,  also  occur  on  vases  of  the  best  period, 
and  on  the  later  Mycenaean  vases  quadrupeds  and  human  figures 
are  not  very  uncommon.  The  most  important  representation  of 


FlG.  43.  —  Mycenaean  vases.     (Furtwangler  and  Loeschcke,  Mykenische  Vasen, 
PI.  II.  10,  PI.  XIII,  8iA,  PI.  XVIII,  130.) 

human  figures  is  on  the  so-called  Warrior  Vase,  which  was  found 
among  the  remains  of  houses  outside  of  the  circle  under  which 
were  the  shaft  graves  (Fig.  44).  Here,  on  one  side  of  the  vase, 
six  warriors,  with  helmets,  shields,  and  lances,  are  marching  away 
to  the  right,  while  a  woman  stands  and  looks  after  them ;  on  the 
other  side,  a  scene  of  combat  is  represented.  The  crudities  of 
execution  of  this  painting  are  evident,  but  the  liveliness  of  the 
representation,  and  the  careful  observation,  especially  in  details 
of  costume,  are  no  less  apparent.  This  painting  represents  two 
scenes  such  as  were  familiar  to  the  painter  and  his  patrons, 
probably  merely  typical  scenes,  with  no  historical  significance, 
though  it  is,  perhaps,  possible  that  the  person  for  whom  the  vase 


9o 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


was  painted  was  himself  a  warrior  and  wished  the  decoration  of 
the  vase  to  bear  some  relation  to  his  own  exploits.  In  this  case, 
the  painting  might  be  said  to  represent  particular  individuals, 
rather  than  general  types.  But  it  is  hardly  possible  to  attach  to 
it  any  mythological  significance.  If  it  is  not  intended  to  represent 
warriors  in  general,  it  doubtless  represents  the  person  for  whom 


FlG.  44.  —  Warrior  vase  from  Mycenae.     (Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's 
Ausgrabungen,  Fig.  284.) 

it  was  painted  and  his  comrades.  Mythological  and  religious 
subjects  are  conspicuously  absent  from  Mycenaean  vase  paintings, 
though  doubtless  some  of  the  patterns  that  occur,  such  as  the 
double  axe,  have  religious  significance.  In  general,  the  decora- 
tion becomes  less  careful  toward  the  end  of  the  Mycenaean 
epoch.  An  additional  sign  of  late  date,  occurring  in  some  vases, 
is  the  painting  of  the  inside. 

On  some  of  the  fine  Mycenaean  vases,  the  black  or  dark  brown 
varnish  has  turned  to  red  in  the  firing.  This  is  probably  inten- 
tional, and  certainly  the  effect  is  excellent.  The  wall  paintings 
at  Cnossus  and  the  less  striking  remains  of  paintings  found  at 
Tiryns,  Phaestus,  and  even  at  Mycenae  show  that  painting  in 
various  colors  was  widely  and  skilfully  practised  in  Greek  lands 
in  the  Mycenaean  age,  and  if  the  characteristic  Mycenaean  vases 
are  virtually  monochrome,  the  reason  is  probably  a  technical  one. 
The  brilliant  varnish,  capable  of  withstanding  the  heat  of  the  firing 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  91 

of  the  pottery,  could  not  be  produced  in  various  colors ;  other- 
wise the  vases  would  probably  show  as  much  variety  of  color  as 
do  the  frescoes.  But  a  certain  degree  of  variety  was  produced  in 
some  cases  by  firing  the  pottery  at  such  a  heat  as  to  cause  the 
varnish  to  shade  from  brownish  black  to  red. 

For  the  comparative  monotony  in  coloring,  however,  ample  com- 
pensation is  offered  by  the  immense  variety  of  shapes  and  designs. 
The  qualities  of  liveliness  and  imagination,  which  have  been  ob- 
served in  the  frescoes  of  Cnossus,  the  gold  cups  from  Vaphio, 
the  steatite  vase  from  Hagia  Triada,  and  some  of  the  Mycenaean 
gems  are  present  also  in  the  decoration  of  Mycenaean  vases. 
The  designers  of  these  vases  were  doubtless  not  the  great  artists 
of  their  times,  but  they  were  nevertheless  real  artists  in  their  hum- 
ble sphere,  and  their  works  serve  to  give  us  an  exalted  opinion  of 
the  artistic  qualities  inherent  in  their  race. 

The  brilliant  varnish  characteristic  of  Mycenaean  pottery  ap- 
pears to  have  been  invented  in  Crete ;  but  the  great  majority  of 
Mycenaean  vases  cannot  be  of  Cretan  manufacture,  for  the  power 
of  Crete  was  fallen,  or  at  least  greatly  diminished,  before  Myce- 
naean vase  painting  attained  its  fullest  development  and  its  widest 
diffusion.  Mycenaean  vases  have  been  found  in  great  quantities 
at  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and  other  places  in  the  Argolid,  at  numerous 
sites  in  Cyprus,  in  Rhodes,  especially  at  lalysus,  in  Attica,  Boeotia, 
Thessaly,  and  other  parts  of  continental  Greece,  in  many  of  the 
Greek  islands,  at  Troy,  in  Egypt,  in  Sicily,  and  elsewhere.  Cer- 
tain large  vases  of  the  crater  form,  on  which  human  figures  are 
unusually  frequent,  have  been  found  only  in  Cyprus,  and  are  there- 
fore probably  of  Cypriote  manufacture.  Other  local  peculiarities 
may  perhaps  be  distinguished  in  other  places.  It  is  certain  that 
Mycenaean  vases  were  made  at  various  places,  and  it  is  probable 
that  their  manufacture  was  carried  on  at  all  the  chief  centres  of 
population  and  of  trade.  The  vases  found  in  the  less  important 
places,  and  those  found  in  outlying  regions,  as  in  Egypt  or  at 
Troy,  were  probably  imported  from  some  centre  of  production, 
such  as  Crete  in  the  earlier  and  Mycenae  in  the  later  part  of  the 


92  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

long  Mycenaean  age.  The  great  similarity  of  the  products  of  dif- 
ferent places,  which  have  been  found  in  so  many  widely  separated 
localities,  testifies  eloquently  to  the  wide  diffusion  of  a  substan- 
tially homogeneous  civilization. 

The  ethnological  problems  connected  with  the  study  of  the 
Mycenaean  age  and  the  preceding  periods  cannot  be  discussed 
here.  It  is,  however,  made  very  probable  by  the  study  of  the 
monuments  and  of  the  Homeric  poems  that  the  Achaean  heroes 
of  the  Trojan  War  are  identical  with  the  rulers  whose  wealth, 
power,  and  culture  are  attested  by  the  fortifications,  golden  treas- 
ures, and  works  of  art  of  the  Mycenaean  age. 

No  exact  dates  can  be  given  for  any  events  or  monuments  during 
the  long  period  of  which  this  chapter  treats ;  but  in  a  general  way 

the  chronological  sequence  is  established.     The  fact 
Chronology     .         ,.  ..„          .  ..  ,.        ,., 

that  objects  of  Egyptian  origin  are  found  in  the  Aegean 

regions,  and  that  objects  from  those  regions  have  come  to  light 
in  Egypt,  while  Egyptian  paintings  evidently  represent  people 
and  things  from  the  "islands  of  the  sea,"  makes  it  possible  to 
determine  the  chronological  relations  between  Egyptian  civiliza- 
tion and  that  of  Greece  and  Greek  lands.  Since  Egyptian  chro- 
nology is  more  or  less  accurately  known,  approximate  dates  can 
be  assigned  to  the  various  parts  of  the  long  period  that  intervenes 
between  the  neolithic  age  and  the  end  of  the  Mycenaean  civiliza- 
tion. As  for  the  neolithic  age,  no  exact  date  can  be  assigned  to 
its  end,  and  indeed  it  may  have  lasted  for  some  time,  even  for 
several  centuries,  longer  in  some  places  than  in  others ;  and  since 
its  duration  is  unknown,  not  even  an  approximate  date  can  as  yet 
be  given  for  its  beginning.  But  in  the  stratum  immediately  above 
the  neolithic  remains  at  Cnossus  primitive  black  pottery  was  found 
which  is  closely  connected  with  vases  of  foreign  origin  found  in 
tombs  of  the  first  Egyptian  dynasty  at  Abydos,  in  Egypt;  two 
stone  vessels  of  Egyptian  material  and  belonging  to  the  earliest 
dynasties  were  also  found  at  Cnossus,  and  some  Cretan  stone 
vases  and  engraved  stones  show  the  influence  of  Egyptian  work 
of  the  same  period.  At  Cnossus,  then,  the  neolithic  age  appar- 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  93 

ently  came  to  an  end  before  the  beginning  of  the  first  Egyptian 
dynasty,  the  date  of  which  is  now  generally  believed  to  be  3400 
B.C.,  though  some  Egyptologists  still  prefer  a  date  several  centuries 
earlier.  In  some  parts  of  the  Greek  world  the  neolithic  age  may 
have  lasted  longer  than  at  Cnossus,  but  the  date  suggested  may 
be  regarded  as  a  rough  approximation,  and  may,  as  such,  be  ex- 
tended to  apply  to  the  whole  Aegean  region. 

To  the  times  of  the  first  dynasties  in  Egypt  belong  the  objects 
just  mentioned,  found  at  Cnossus,  as  well  as  vases  of  local  manu- 
facture, of  dark  or  light  clay,  polished  by  hand  and  adorned  with 
geometrical  ornaments  in  white  or  brown.  Similar  primitive  vases 
from  the  Cyclades  and  other  places  belong  apparently  to  the  same 
period,  from  about  3400  to  3000  B.C.  The  same  class  of  vases, 
with  more  developed  ornamentation,  continued  to  be  made  in  the 
following  centuries,  perhaps  until  about  2600  B.C.  During  this 
period  seals  with  decorations  of  spiral  lines  appear  in  Crete,  and 
the  black  (bucchero)  pottery  is  decorated  with  incised  lines.  Idols 
of  marble  and  ivory  are  made  in  Crete  at  this  time,  and  the  earliest 
idols  and  incised  pottery  of  the  Cyclades  apparently  belong  to  the 
same  or  the  previous  period.  The  first  city  at  Phylakopi  may 
be  dated  about  3000  B.C.  and  later. 

The  development  of  art  and  manufactures  in  the  Aegean  re- 
gions seems  to  have  continued  without  striking  changes  or  inter- 
ruptions throughout  the  period  of  the  Old  Kingdom  in  Egypt  (to 
about  2500  B.C.)  ;  geometric  ornament  became  more  regular  and 
elaborate,  the  "  Cycladic "  civilization  developed,  apparently 
influencing  Crete  to  some  extent,  while  in  Crete  itself  primitive 
pictographic  signs  appear  on  engraved  stones,  and  vases  with 
polychrome  ornamentation  make  their  appearance,  though  perhaps 
not  until  some  time  after  the  end  of  the  Old  Kingdom.  At  any 
rate,  it  is  not  until  the  times  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  about  2000 
B.C.  ,  that  the  "  Kamares  "  vases,  with  their  developed  polychromy, 
become  general  in  Crete.  Such  vases  have  been  found  at  Kahun 
in  Egypt  under  circumstances  which  fix  their  date  in  the  time  of 
Usertesen  II,  1906  to  1887  B.C.  The  beginnings  of  the  palaces 


94  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

at  Cnossus  and  Phaestus  are  probably  to  be  placed  at  least  as  early 
as  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  (2160  B.C.).  To  about 
the  same  period  belongs  the  second  city  at  Phylakopi,  and  it  is 
evident  that  the  trade  relations  of  the  Greek  islands  were  already 
of  considerable  importance.  The  palace  at  Cnossus  seems  to  have 
been  in  whole  or  in  part  destroyed  not  far  from  1800  B.C.  After 
this  the  palace  was  rebuilt,  and  some  of  the  frescoes  from  Cnossus 
date  from  the  succeeding  years.  The  polychrome  Kamares 
pottery  is  gradually  succeeded  by  the  pottery  with  naturalistic 
decoration,  usually  white  on  a  dark  ground,  and  naturalistic  designs 
become  general  in  Crete,  not  only  on  vases,  but  also  on  reliefs 
and  on  seals  or  gems,  which  are  now  made  of  hard  stones.  Fine 
statuettes  of  glazed  terracotta  were  found  among  the  remains  at 
Cnossus  belonging  to  this  period,  which  is  approximately  dated  by 
a  monument  of  the  XIII  dynasty  later  than  1800  B.C.  The  vases 
from  Thera,  with  plant  forms  painted  in  lustreless  dark  paint  also 
belong  to  this  time,  which  may  be  regarded  as  continuing  until 
1600  B.C.  or  slightly  later. 

After  this  the  system  of  decoration  of  pottery  at  Cnossus  changes, 
and  the  designs,  sometimes  very  naturalistic,  are  painted  in  dark 
"  Mycenaean  "  varnish  on  a  light  ground ;  the  palace  at  Cnossus 
is  remodelled  and  richly  decorated ;  the  palace  at  Hagia  Triada  is 
built ;  and  the  pictographic  Cretan  script,  which  had  already  begun 
to  yield  to  the  linear  script,  is  definitively  superseded.  Then  follows 
the  further  remodelling  of  the  palace  at  Cnossus,  and  at  last  its 
destruction.  In  Egyptian  tombs  of  the  XVIII  dynasty  (about  1500 
to  1450  B.C.)  representations  of  Cretan,  or  at  least  of  island,  men 
and  manufactures  are  seen.  The  objects  found  in  the  shaft  graves 
at  Mycenae  belong  for  the  most  part  to  this  time,  roughly  speaking, 
on  the  basis  of  the  Egyptian  chronology,  the  fifteenth  century  B.C. 
This  is  also  the  time  of  the  third  city  at  Phylakopi.  From  this 
time  on,  the  naturalistic  decoration  of  vases  becomes  more  and 
more  conventional.  The  Mycenaean  civilization  is  more  widely 
spread  than  ever  before.  It  is  in  this  latest  period  that  the  great 
dome  tombs  at  Mycenae,  Orchomenus,  and  elsewhere  were  built,  and 


PREHELLENIC   GREECE  95 

toward  the  end  of  the  period  the  palace  at  Cnossus  was  partially  re- 
occupied.  Products  of  Mycenaean  art  are  found  in  various  places 
associated  with  Egyptian  objects  produced  as  late  as  the  XXI 
dynasty  (1090-945  B.C.),  and  possibly  somewhat  later,  but  the  end 
of  Mycenaean  civilization  is  evidently  reached  about  900  B.C.1 

At  the  end  of  the  Mycenaean  age  new  movements  of  population 
took  place.  New  tribes,  chief  among  which  were  the  Dorians, 
entered  Greece ;  the  ancient  inhabitants  were  displaced  or  sub- 
jected, the  practice  of  the  arts  declined,  and  Greece  relapsed  into 
a  state  that  must  have  been  little  better  than  semi-barbarous.  After 
a  period  of  two  or  three  centuries  the  arts  were  revived  with  much 
of  the  old  spirit,  but  with  new  and  different  ideals.  This  dark 
period,  which  has  aptly  been  termed  the  Greek  Middle  Ages,  is 
the  time  of  germination,  after  which  follows  the  vigorous  and  won- 
derful growth  of  classical  Greek  art  and  civilization.  The  scanty 
remains  of  the  primitive  art  of  this  period,  containing  as  they  do 
the  promise  of  future  development,  are  best  discussed  in  connection 
with  the  various  forms  of  art  in  the  later  periods. 

1  The  chronological  sketch  given  above  is  based  upon  the  chronology  of 
Prehellenic  Crete  as  established  by  Dr.  A.  J.  Evans,  but  the  actual  dates 
given  are,  especially  in  the  earlier  parts,  later  than  those  which  Dr.  Evans 
proposes,  because  Dr.  Evans  follows,  with  modifications,  the  traditional  system 
of  Egyptian  chronology,  and  the  dates  here  given  are  in  accordance  with 
the  chronology  resulting  from  the  investigations  of  Eduard  Meyer  and  others, 
which  has  been  adopted  by  Professor  Breasted  in  his  History  of  Egypt.  Dr. 
Evans  divides  the  history  of  Prehellenic  Crete  into  three  main  periods,  Early 
Minoan,  Middle  Minoan,  and  Late  Minoan,  each  of  which  contains  three  sub- 
divisions, Early  Minoan,  I,  II,  and  III,  etc.  The  Early  Minoan  period  com- 
prises the  first  centuries  after  the  neolithic  age ;  the  Middle  Minoan  period 
the  time  from  the  appearance  of  polychrome  vases  in  Crete  to  the  virtual 
abandonment  of  decoration  in  light  color  on  a  dark  ground  ;  and  the  Late 
Minoan  period  the  time  after  the  general  adoption  of  decoration  in  dark 
varnish  on  a  light  ground.  The  Late  Minoan  period  is  practically  identical 
with  the  Mycenaean  period. 


CHAPTER   II 

ARCHITECTURE 

BUILDING  MATERIALS  AND   METHODS 

CONCERNING  Greek  building  materials  and  methods  of  construe 
tion,  little  information  is  derived  from  ancient  literature,  but  the 
study  of  the  so-called  building  inscriptions  and  of  the  actual  re- 
mains of  buildings  serves  to  make  our  knowledge  of  the  subject 
nearly  complete.  The  building  inscriptions  (about  twenty  in 
number)  are  either  records  of  expenses  incurred  in  the  course  of 
erection,  such  as  the  inscriptions  relating  to  the  Erechtheum  at 
Athens,  or  contracts  and  specifications,  like  the  inscription  which 
describes  in  detail  the  proposed  construction  of  the  arsenal  of 
Philo  at  Piraeus.  The  actual  remains  of  buildings  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  Hellenic  world. 

At  Athens l  and  in  its  neighborhood  the  Greeks  had  a  variety  of 
building  stones  to  choose  from.  The  upper  stratum  of  the  Acrop- 
olis consisted  of  a  hard  limestone,  ranging  in  color 
from  pink  to  blue,  which  was  employed  in  building 
the  Pelasgic  walls  about  the  Acropolis  and  the  foundations  of 
the  old  temple  of  Athena.  Kara  stone,  a  hard  limestone  of  good 
weathering  qualities  and  capable  of  receiving  a  good  polish,  was 
used  for  the  steps  of  the  old  temple  of  Athena.  At  Piraeus  a  fos- 
siliferous  limestone  was  quarried,  which  was  generally  used  for 
foundations  ;  when  used  elsewhere  it  was  given  a  coating  of  stucco. 
This  is  the  stone  usually  called  "  poros  "  by  modern  writers.  A 

1  The  building  stones  of  other  regions  differed  little  from  those  in  use  at 
Athens,  though  in  many  places  the  variety  of  available  stones  was  less,  and 
in  some  places,  e.g.  Olympia,  Sicily,  and  Magna  Graecia,  marble  was  less 
easily  obtained  and  therefore  less  freely  used. 

96 


ARCHITECTURE  97 

conglomerate  was  also  occasionally  employed,  but  always  in  un- 
exposed  places.  Marble  was  not  used  extensively  until  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  and  veneering  is  characteristic  of  the  latest  periods.1 
The  island  of  Paros  seems  to  have  been  the  first  place  to  pro- 
duce marble  in  any  great  quantity,  and  on  the  Greek  mainland 
Attica  was  the  only  region  where  this  material  was  really  abun- 
dant. At  Athens  it  was  little  used  for  building  purposes  until  the 

latter  part  of  the  sixth  century,  and  was  at  first  em- 
Marble 
ployed   only    for    roof  tiles,   simas,   and   sculptures, 

where  delicate  carving  was  required.  The  quarries  of  Mt.  Pen- 
telicus  were  opened  at  about  this  time,  but  Parian  marble  still 
continued  to  be  found  in  the  Athenian  market.  At  Olympia  the 
use  of  marble  was  nearly  limited  to  parts  of  the  Echo  Hall,  the 
Philippeum,  the  roof  and  the  sculptures  of  the  temple  of  Zeus, 
and  the  veneer  of  the  Exedra  of  Herodes  Atticus.  At  Delphi, 
which  was  in  closer  communication  with  districts  in  which  marble 
was  found,  this  material  was  more  freely  employed.  Examples  of 
its  use  there  in  early  times  are  parts  of  the  temple  of  Apollo 
erected  in  the  sixth  century  and  the  "  treasuries  "  of  the  Cnidians 
and  the  Athenians.  When  a  coarse  stone  was  used  in  exposed 
places,  it  was  almost  always  covered  with  a  coat  of  fine  stucco 
carefully  smoothed. 

Rubble  construction  laid  with  clay  as  a  mortar  is  often  found  in 
combination  with  stonework.  Lime  mortar  as  a  building  material 

did  not  come  into  use  until  Roman  times.     Sun-dried 

Brick 
brick  was  used  where  there  was  a  stiff  clay  and  stone 

was  scarce,  and  even,  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  in  places 
where  stone  was  plentiful,  as  at  Corinth.  It  was  used  for  the 
walls  of  private  houses,  the  upper  courses  of  circuit  walls,  and 
sometimes  for  temple  walls.  The  bricks  were  laid  upon  a  course 
of  stone  work  to  guard  against  the  danger  of  disintegration  from 
moisture  and  injury  from  wanton  or  careless  passers-by.  As 

1  As  an  exception  to  this  rule,  the  veneering  of  marble  used  to  hide  the 
Pelasgic  stonework  of  the  earlier  Propylaea  on  the  Acropplis  at  Athens  may 
be  cited. 

GREEK    ARCH.  —  7 


98  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

examples,  the  walls  of  the  Dipylon  at  Athens  and  of  the  He- 
raeum  at  Olympia  may  be  cited.  Burnt  brick  was  unknown  until 
Roman  times.  As  for  wood,  the  Greek  builder  could  choose 
among  many  varieties,  the  most  important  of  which  were  lotus 
wood,  pine,  fir,  oak,  and  ash.  Attica  imported  wood  from  Thessaly 
and  the  islands.  The  timbers  were  generally  heavier  than  those 
now  in  use,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  weight  of  a  roof  with  marble 
tiles  was  immense,  and  moreover  we  find  that  the  timbers  were 
often  laid  flat  instead  of  on  edge. 

The  quarries  on  Mt.  Pentelicus,  at  Syracuse,  Paros,  and  Campo- 
bello  near  Selinus  give  a  good  idea  of  the  method  by  which  stones 

were  loosened  from  their  native  beds.     The  quarries, 
Quarrying 

as  a  whole,  were  worked  in  a  series  of  steps.  To  re- 
move a  block,  a  vertical  cut  was  sunk  at  its  back  ;  two  other  cuts 
were  sunk  at  right  angles  to  the  first  and  at  the  ends  of  the  block 
to  be  removed ;  then  the  block  was  loosened  underneath  by 
driving  holes  along  horizontally,  in  which  wedges  of  metal  or  of 
wood  were  inserted.  If  wedges  of  metal  were  used,  they  were 
struck  with  a  sledge  hammer  until  the  block  was  loosened,  and  if 
the  wedges  were  of  wood,  water  was  run  in  about  them,  causing 
them  to  swell  and  loosen  the  block. 

From  the  quarries  on  Mt.  Pentelicus  to  the  plain,  a  chute  paved 
with  marble  was  constructed,  along  which,  at  intervals,  there  are 
still  to  be  seen  square  cuttings  sunk  in  the  native  rock,  to  which 
ropes  were  fastened  for  lowering  the  stones  gently  down  the  slope. 
Moving  Wagon  ruts  are  plainly  visible  in  certain  quarries,  and  a 
stones  sort  of  cart  or  drag  was  probably  used  in  transporting 
light  stones.  For  heavy  stones,  rollers  were  employed,  as  in 
modern  times,  and  the  stones  were  given  a  forward  motion  by 
means  of  crowbars.  In  some  cases,  we  find  cuttings  for  the  crow- 
bars, and  in  other  cases  projecting  bosses,  against  which  the  crow- 
bars were  worked,  were  left  on  the  stones.  Drums  and  shafts  of 
columns  l  were  sometimes  rolled  by  arranging  temporary  axles  at 

1  Architrave  blocks  were  occasionally  moved  like  shafts  by  putting  hoops  of 
wood  about  them  and  rolling  them  (Fig.  45). 


ARCHITECTURE 


99 


the  ends,  by  which  they  were  dragged  along  like  rollers.      For 
example,  at  Selinus,  in  Sicily,  some  of  the  ends  of  the  shafts 


FlG.  45. — Method  of  moving  stones. 
(Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  Griechische 
Tempel,etc.,  Fig.  98.) 


FlG.  46.  —  Method  of  hoisting. 
(Olympia,  Text,  Vol.  II,  Fig.  20.) 


Hoisting 


show  two  sets  of  cuttings,  both  at  the  centre.  One  of  these,  gen- 
erally oblong,  was  used  in  rolling  the  shafts  ;  the  other  set  is  square 
and  was  used  in  securing  a  good  bed  for  the  shaft  when  it  was  set 
in  place  (see  p.  107  f.  below). 

The  earliest  method  of  hoisting  stones  was  probably  by  means  of 
inclined  planes,  but  the  derrick,  with  ropes  and  tackles,  was  used  in 
the  classical  period.  A  Roman  relief  in  the  Museum  of 
the  Lateran  shows  such  a  complicated  system  of  pulleys 
as  to  justify  the  assumption  that  the  Greeks  understood  the  use  of 
pulleys,  at  least  in  a  simpler  form.  Various  cuttings  for  ropes  are 

to  be  found  at  Olympia,  Aegina,  in  Sicily,  and 

in  the  old  temple  of  Athena  at  Athens.    There 

are  three  principal 

types  :   a  loop  cut 

in  the  middle  of 

the  stone  (Fig.  46), 

grooves  cut  in  the 

end  of  the  stone 

(Fig.  47),   and  a 

£r°OVe  CUt  arOUnd      FIG.  48.  -  Rope  cuttings  around 
the  Stone  (Fig.  48).         stone.    (Drawing  by  G.P.S.) 


I( 


Me(D°raw- 
ingbyG.P.S.) 


100 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


In  a  variation  of  the  second  type  hooks  were  used,  which  caught 
on  short  crossbars  (Fig.  49).  These  cuttings  were  confined,  as  a 
rule,  to  soft  stones,  for  this  method  of  hoist- 
ing was  discontinued  when  the  use  of  marble 
was  introduced,  and  the 
harder  stone  permitted 
the  employment  of  lifting 
tongs  and  the  lewis.1 
Projecting  bosses  were 
sometimes  left  on  the 
stones  for  lifting-tongs  to 
catch  under.2  Square  cut- 
tings on  the  under  surfaces 
of  the  stones,  at  the  edges,  for  the  use  of  lifting-tongs,  are  often 
seen  (Fig.  50),  and  tong  cuttings  sometimes  occur  in  the  ends, 

near  the  top  (Fig.  51),  or  in 
the  upper  surface  (Fig.  52). 


FIG.  49.  —  Method  of 
hoisting.  (G.P.S. 
after  Koldewey  and 
Puchstein.) 


FIG.  50.  —  Tong  cut- 
ting. (G.P.S.  after 
Koldewey  and 
Puchstein.) 


FIG.  51.  —  Lifting-tongs. 
( Olympia,  Text,  Vol.  II, 
Fig.  20.) 


FlG.  52.  —  Lifting-tongs. 
(Drawing  by  G.P.S.) 


FlG.  53. —  Greek  lewis. 
(Clarke,  Assos,  II, 
Fig.  25-) 


These  last  were  employed  in  dropping  the  final  stone  of  a  course 
into  place.  The  lewis  was  used  constantly  in  hoisting  hard  stones, 
the  Greek  lewis  holes  being  undercut  at  one  end  only  (Fig.  53), 

1  Cuttings  for  lifting-tongs  and  lewises  are  occasionally  found  in  soft  stones; 
but  the  cuttings  had  to  be  so  large,  to  prevent  the  stones  from  breaking,  that 
their  use  was  soon  discontinued. 

2  These  bosses  are  generally  too  small  and  too  imperfectly  shaped  for  ropes 
to  catch  hold  of. 


ARCHITECTURE  101 

not  like  those  of  Roman  and  modern  times  (Fig.  54),  at  both 
ends.     Both  rope  cuttings  and  lewises  were  so  placed  as  to  bring 


at  first  only  the  edge  of  the  stone  in  con- 
tact with  the  bed,  so  that  an  easy  and  true 
adjustment  of  the  stone  could  be  rmde. 

The   tools  used  in   dressing  the  blocks 
difieied   little    from    those    in    use    to-day. 

The   evidence    for   this   is  de- 
Tools 

rived  from   a  careful  study  of 

the  stones  themselves  and  of  the  building  FIG.  54. —  Roman  lewis, 
inscriptions.  Heavy  tools,  swung  by  both  Cawing  by  G.P.S.) 
hands,  were  the  sledge  hammer  and  a  large  axe,  the  latter  useful 
for  work  in  soft  stone.  A  lighter  axe,  the  edge  of  which  was 
well  tempered,  a  square-headed  hammer  used  in  dressing  the 
edges  of  stones,  and  the  mallet  with  which  the  chisels  were  struck 
were  swung  by  one  hand. 

The  chisels  in  use  were  the  point,  for  rough  work  ;  flat  chisels, 
sometimes  broad  and  sometimes  narrow,  for  finishing ;  and,  after 
the  change  in  the  sixth  century  from  soft  to  hard  stone  made  a 
better  biting  instrument  necessary,  toothed  chisels  of  varying 
width  and  fineness,  for  joints.  There  is  evidence  at  Tiryns  and  in 
certain  blocks  of  marble  now  (1907)  lying  to  the  southeast  of  the 
Parthenon  that  stones  were  cut  with  the  saw.  For  work  in  wood 
there  is  evidence  of  the  use  of  flat  chisels,  curved  chisels,  and  augers 
similar  to  those  of  to-day.  Rulers  were  sometimes  of  wood,  some- 
times of  stone,  and  in  building  inscriptions  mention  is  frequently 
made  of  straightening  them.  To  the  list  of  tools  may  be  added 
from  various  sources  of  information  squares,  levelling  instruments, 
compasses,  and  instruments  used  for  scratching  lines  upon  stone.1 

There  were  three  stages  in  the  working  of  stones ;  the  rough 
shaping  at  the  quarry,  the  cutting  into  size  and  shape  near  the 

1The  following  tools,  taken  from  the  cities  buried  by  Vesuvius,  are  pre- 
served in  the  Museum  at  Naples:  bronze  compasses,  foot-rules,  plumb  bobs, 
squares,  metal  planes,  augers,  trowels,  chisels  for  use  in  stone  and  wood,  ham- 
mers, picks,  shovels,  and  a  complete  levis. 


102  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

building,  and  the  final  finish  after  the  stone  was  in  place.  For  the 
rough  work  at  the  quarry  the  hammer  and  point  were  used  ;  at 
the  building  site  the  stone  was  dressed  with  the  point  until  it 
reached  approximately  the  size  desired,  and  the  block  was  then 
worked  over  with  the  toothed  chisel,  the  straightedge  and  square 
being  continually  used  to  test  the  planes.  On  exposed  surfaces 
Working  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  stone  was  left  to  be 
stones  removed  later.  With  the  bottoms  of  the  stones  great 
care  was  taken  to  obtain  true  polished  surfaces  along  the  exposed 
edges,  in  order  to  secure  water-tight  joints,  as  no  mortar  whatever 
was  used.  It  was  the  practice  in  Attica  in  the  fifth  century  to 
dress  with  equal  care  the  upper  surface  of  a  whole  course  from 
end  to  end,  thus  securing  the  best  possible  bed  for  the  following 
course.  The  vertical  surfaces  of  contact,  since  there  is  no  press- 
ure at  such  joints,  received  a  special  treatment  (see  Figs.  46  ar.d 

55)  :  the  surfaces  were  picked  away, 
so  that  there  were  true  smooth  bands 

••••'••    :  <•  1 

of  contact  at  the  edges  only.     This 
treatment,  which  is  known   as  ana' 

FIG-  55- —  Forms  of    contact.       thyrosis,     may    occur    on    one,   two, 
i  Ulympia.  Text,  Vol.  II,  Fig.  15.)        .,  „     •  ,          c  ,    .    .    t 

three,  or  all  sides  of  a  vertical  joint. 

A  form  of  contact  common  at  Olympia  is  shown  in  Figure  55,  at 
the  right. 

The  face  of  the  stone,  in  the  best  work,  was  left  unfinished 
until  the  wall  was  completed,  in  order  that  a  true  continuous 
surface  and  the  best  possible  joints  might  be  obtained.  Horizon- 
tal and  vertical  bands,  to  which  plumb  lines  could  be  referred, 
were  carefully  sunk  to  the  desired  depth  in  the  face  of  the  wall. 
In  dressing  for  the  final  surface  the  stones  were  smeared  with  a 
mixture  of  oil  and  an  ochrous  earth  (/U'ATOS)  from  Sinope.  The 
straightedge  was  applied  and  twisted  about,  removing  the  colored 
mixture  from  the  high  points  and  thus  telling  the  stone  cutter 
where  to  chisel.  Last  of  all  came  the  polishing,  accomplished  by 
means  of  a  smooth  stone  and  some  sort  of  lubricant,  such  as  water 
or  oil.  Great  care  was  taken  to  avoid  splintering  the  exposed 


ARCHITECTURE 


103 


edges  in  setting  the  stones.  The  usual  method  was  to  bevel  the 
edges  (Fig.  56),  and  the  groove  thus  formed  was  removed  in  the 
final  finishing  of  the  wall  face.  When  ex- 
posed surfaces  had  to  be  finished  before 
the  stone  was  set,  as  in  the  case  of  steps 
which  were  set  along  a  line  scratched  in 
the  course  below,  the  treatment  was  that  FIG.  56.— Treatment  of 
shown  in  Figure  57.  The  same  principle  edge.  Horizontal  section. 
was  applied  to  the  bottom  drums  of  the  ' 

Doric  column  and  to  all  capitals  and  cornice  members  which 
might  be  injured  when  they  or  the  stones  above  them  were  put  in 
place.  In  soft  stones  the  centres  of  ex- 
posed surfaces  were  often  raised.  This 
was  regarded  in  Hellenistic  times  as  a 
species  of  decoration  and  was  used  espe- 
cially in  the  lowest  course  of  the  wall. 
In  addition  to  the  rope  cuttings  and 


FlG.  57.  — Treatment  of 
edge.     (Drawing  by  G.P.S.) 


lewis  holes  there  are  four  important  kinds  of  cuttings  which  have 
not   yet   been   mentioned ;     pry 

holes,     shift      holes, 
Cuttings 

dowel      holes,      and 

cramp  cuttings.  The  first  two  of 
these  were  used  in  working  the 
stone  into  its  final  position,  the 
last  two  in  bonding  the  wall  to- 
gether. Pry  holes  are  shallow 
cuttings,  from  half  to  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch  deep  an  1  from 
two  to  three  inches  long,  cut  in 
the  upper  surface  of  a  stone  and 
used  in  connection  with  a  crow- 
bar in  prying  the  stone  in  the 
course  above  into  its  place.  They 
lie  at  right  angles  to  the  motion  to  be  given  to  the  stone  above 
(Fig.  58).  Sometimes  as  fast  as  a  stone  was  moved  forward  a 


FIG.  58.  —  Pry  holes.     (Clarke,  Assy., 
II.  Fig.  7.) 


1O4 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


new  pry  hole  had  to  be  cut,  and  as  many  as  four  or  five  in  a  line 
occasionally  occur.x  Shift  holes  were  cut  in  the  ends  of  the 
stones,  one  set  on  the  under  surface  and  a  second  near  the  upper 
surface  (Fig.  59). 


B    • 


,09     > 


FIG.  59.  —  Shift  holes.     (Drawing  by  G.P.S.) 

Dowels,  generally  of  wrought  iron  and  packed  with  molten 
lead,  were  used  to  hold  the  stones  of  different  courses  together. 
They  had  various  ingenious  shapes  to  suit  special  needs.  For 
use  in  walls  the  dowel  cutting  was  rectangular  and 
was  about  three  inches  long,  one  inch  wide,  and  two 
inches  deep  in  both  upper  and  lower  stones  (Fig.  60). 2  A  special 


Dowels 


1  In  the  Parthenon  each  pry  hole  contains  a  piece  of  wrought  iron,  held  in 
place  with  lead  and  situated  at  the  side  of  the  pry  hole  away  from  the  stone 
to  be  pried  into  place.     Its  purpose  was  to  give  the  crowbar  a  solid  hold  in 
prying. 

2  These  dowels  were  placed  in  the  end  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  upper 
stone  and  sealed  with  lead  before  the  next  stone  of  the  same  course  was  laid. 
A  dowel,  then,  in  the  bottom  of  a  stone,  tells  us  in  which  direction  the  course 
was  laid.     A  dowel  in  the  top  of  a  stone  is  generally  accompanied  by  one  or 
more  pry  holes.     These  pry  holes  cannot  exist  on  both  sides  of  the  dowel, 
as  they  were  used  in  prying  into  place  the  stone  which  the  dowel  was  to 
hold.     Pry  hotes  and  dowels  give   us,  then,  not  only  the  direction  in  which 


ARCHITECTURE 


I05 


type  of  dowel  was  employed  at  angles  and  in  other  places  wnere 
sliding  in  two  directions  had  to  be  guarded  against  (Fig.  61) 
Angle  stones,  if  they  were  the  last  stones  of  their  courses  to  be 
laid,  were  sometimes  secured  by  dowels  as  shown  in  Figure  62, 
or,  if  the  stones  were  thick,  as  shown  in  Figure  63,  the  channel 
in  each  case  being  ma  le  for  the  purpose  of  pouring  in  the  molten 
lead.  It  was  the  usual  practice,  however,  to  lay  the  angle  stones 


FIG.  65. 


FIG.  66. 


FIGS.  60-66.  —  Dowels  and  cuttings.     (Drawings  by  G.P.S.) 

first  and  work  away  from  the  angles,  thus  hiding  all  dowels.  In 
soft  stones  the  dowels,  to  be  effective,  had  to  be  placed  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  joint.  Figure  64  shows  how  this 
was  accomplished  in  the  temple  of  Poseidon  at  Paestum.  As 

the  course  above  was  laid,  but  also  the  approximate  position  of  the  end  of  the 
stone  above,  that  is,  its  joint.  Shift  holes  also  show  in  what  direction  the 
course  was  laid  (cp.  Fig.  59).  The  extensive  use  of  dowels  and  cramps  in 
Greek  buildings  is  probably  due  to  the  danger  from  earthquakes. 


io6 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


lead  was  used  on  all  parts  of  this  dowel,  the  latter  must  have 
been  leaded  in  the  upper  stone  before  the  stone  was  set  in  place. 
Occasionally  an  oblique  pour-channel  leads  from  the  nearest  avail- 
able point  in  the  stone  above  (Fig.  65),  and  sometimes  dowels  are 
placed  in  the  ends  of  stones,  with  vertical  pour-channels  in  the 
vertical  joints.  The  last  type,  which  was  in  use  from  the  fourth 
century  on,  is  the  dowel  with  horizontal  pour  channel,  as  shown 
in  Figure  66.  As  in  the  case  illustrated  by  Figure  64,  the  metal 
dowel,  generally  square  in  section,  was  fastened  with  lead  in  the 
upper  stone  before  the  latter  was  set.  A  cutting  prepared  for  it 


FIG.  67. 


FIG.  68. 


FIG.  69. 


FIG.  70. 


FIG.  71.  FIG.  72. 

FlGS.  67-72.  —  Cramp  cuttings.      (G. P. S.,  Fig.  72  after  Koldewey,  Lesbos,  p.  46.) 

in  the  stone  beneath  received  the  dowel  when  the  upper  stone  was 
set,  and  lead  was  then  run  in  through  a  channel  cut  in  the  upper 
surface  of  the  under  stone. 

Cramps,  generally  of  wrought  iron,  but  sometimes  of  bronze,  were 
used  to  fasten  together  the  stones  of  the  same  course.  They  were 
usually  hidden  and  carefully  sealed  with  lead.  They 
were  apparently  employed  earlier  than  dowels,  for 
the  Metroum  and  the  Treasury  of  the  Geloans  at  Olyinpia,  both 
of  early  date,  had  cramps  but  no  dowels  in  their  walls.  Cramps 
afford  a  good  test  of  the  age  of  a  building.  There  are  five  types, 
the  first  and  oldest  of  which  is  shown  in  Figure  67.  The  cramp 


Cramps 


ARCHITECTURE  107 

shown  in  Figure  68  is  a  variation  of  this  first  type.  These  cramps 
were  used  in  buildings  of  the  sixth  and  the  early  part  of  the  fifth 
centuries  (e.g.  the  treasuries  of  Gela,  Sicyon,  an  1  Selinus  at  Olympia 
and  the  stylobate  of  the  old  temple  of  Athena  at  Athens),  and  were 
made  by  simply  bending  the  ends  of  a  bar.  The  second  type  (Fig. 
69),  known  as  the  "  double  T  "  or  the  "  H  "  type,  is  characteristic 
of  the  Periclean  buildings.  It  was  more  expensive  than  the  first 
type,  as  its  ends  were  formed  by  welding,  not  by  simple  bending. 
An  early  instance  of  its  use  is  in  the  entablature  of  the  old  temple 
of  Athena  at  Athens,  and  its  latest  known  occurrence  is  in  the  monu* 
ment  of  Nicias  in  the  same  city.  The  third  type  is  called  the 
"  hook  cramp  "  and  differs  from  the  first  type  in  being  set  vertically 
(Fig.  70).  This  was  in  use  during  the  longest  period,  for  it  is 
found  at  Assos  and  in  the  treasury  of  the  Syracusans  at  Olympia ; 
it  was  then  out  of  fashion  for  a  time,  but  came  in  again  in  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century,  and  was  adopted  by  the  Romans.  It  was 
much  used  at  Epidaurus,  Pergamon,  Samothrace,  and  Olympia. 
In  Roman  times  the  cutting  for  the  bar  was  shallower  than  in  the 
early  Hellenic  period.  The  fourth  type  is  the  "  swallow  tail " 
cramp  (Fig.  71),  which  was  used  chiefly  in  soft  stones.  As  it  was 
in  use  from  the  sixth  to  the  first  century,  it  does  not  serve  as  an 
indication  of  the  date  of  a  building.  The  last  type  (Fig.  72)  was 
found  by  Koldewey  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  to  which  it  seems  to 
have  been  confined.1 

In  the  best  work  great  care  was  taken  to  secure,  in  the  case  of 

column   drums,   joints   of  wonderful   perfection.     In 

Joints 
every  joint,  at  the  axis  of  the  column,  there  was  a 

cutting  (Fig.  73)  for  some  sort  of  wooden  or  bronze  pivot,  about 

1  The  length  of  cramps  varies  from  2  in.,  for  holding  strips  of  mould- 
ings on,  to  2  ft,  as  in  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  where  the  head  needed 
to  be  at  some  distance  from  the  joint  lest  the  cramp  break  out  through  the 
friable  stone.  Double  T  cramps  were  sometimes  used  in  holding  defective 
stones  together.  In  the  Propylaea  at  Athens  several  cases  of  this  occur.  A 
cramp  cutting  in  the  top  of  the  northwest  capital  of  the  main  building  meas- 
ures 0.80  m.  (31 J  in.)  in  length,  0.018  m.  wide,  0.15  m.  width  of  head,  and 
o.i  I  m.  deep.  This  is  the  longest  known  cramp  or  cramp  cutting. 


io8 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


tvhich  the  drum,  as  soon  as  it  was  put  in  place,  was  turned  through 
a  small  angle,  grinding  upon  the  drum  below  until  a  "  perfect "  joint 
was  obtained,  in  some  cases  so  perfect  as  to  be  completely  invisible 
at  a  short  distance.  To  make  this  turning  possible,  bosses  were 
left  on  the  upper  drum  to  catch  hold  of.  The  principle  of  anathy- 

rosis  (see  p.  102)  was  employed  here 
also.1 

Stones  were  prepared  on  the 
ground,  with  the  exception  of  the  last 
finishing.  Each  block  had  a  definite 
position  to  occupy  in  the  building, 
and  sometimes,  in  order  that  there 
might  be  no  mistake,  the  blocks  were 
methodically  letteied  (A,  B,  F,  etc.) 
or,  in  Roman  times,  numbered  (I,  II, 
III,  etc.).  In  the  "  Theseum "  at 
Athens  the  lid  of  each  coffer  of  the 
ceiling  was  marked  with  a  little  design, 
Fie;.  73. —  Cuttings  in  drums  of  and  a  similar  design  was  cut  at  the 

columns.  (Penrose./V^^      sMe  of  the  g  opening  to  which 

of  Athenian  ArcAttecture,p.22, 

ed.  of  1882.)  the  lid  belonged. 


ARCHAIC  ARCHITECTURE 

In  the  obscure  period  that  followed  the  breaking  up  of  the 
Mycenaean  civilization  and  in  the  first  centuries  of  really  Hellenic 
history,  Greek  colonies  spread  from  the  Black  Sea  to  Italy  and  even 
to  France.  These  colonies  retained  some  recollections  of  My- 
cenaean art  and  were,  especially  in  Asia  Minor,  also  influenced  by 
their  neighbors  (Phoenicians  andothers),  while  at  the  same  time  the 

1  It  is  possible  that  these  cuttings,  with  thjir  wooden  blocks  and  circular 
centre  pins,  were  employed  to  secure  an  accurate  centring  of  the  drums  as 
they  were  set  one  on  top  of  the  other. 

In  the  fourth  century,  dowels  with  horizontal  pour-channels  begin  to  be 
used  in  column  joints,  e.g.  in  the  Olympieum  at  Athens. 


ARCHITECTURE  109 

beginnings  of  the  new  Hellenic  art  were  becoming  manifest.     It 
was  during  this  period  that  the  Greek  temple  came  into  being. 

A  cult  without  precious  statues  and  costly  votive  offerings,  such 
as  that  of  Mycenaean  times  seems  to  have  been,  needed  only 
simple  sanctuaries ;  an  altar  in  an  open  space  with  a  surrounding 
hedge  or  wall  would  suffice.  The  origin  of  the  temple  Origin  of  the 
was  probably  due  to  a  desire  to  protect  the  religious  temple 
emblems  from  the  weather,  from  theft,  or  sacrilege,  and  perhaps 
also  in  part  to  the  growth  of  anthropomorphism  in  the  Greek  religion ; 
for  gods  who  are  like  men  should  have  fitting  houses.  And  what 
is  more  natural  than  to  suppose  that  the  Greeks  took  the  noblest 
building  they  knew,  the  Mycenaean  megaron,  and  enriched  it  for 
its  new  purpose,  as  the  house  of  the  god?  The  altar  remained  in 
front  of  the  temple ;  the  entrance  gate  of  the  precinct,  the  propy- 
laeum,  was  also  retained  much  as  it  had  been  before  the  Dorian  Inva- 
sion. The  first  temples  then  probably  had  the  form  of  the  megaron. 
Development  began  at  the  facade,  a  natural  step  being  the  sub- 
stitution of  four  columns  for  the  two  columns  in  antis  of  Mycenaean 
times.  Then  came  a  facade  of  six  columns,  with  columns  along  the 
sides.  The  lateral  colonnades  tempted  one  to  walk  round  the 
building,  and  the  last  feature  of  the  temple  was  the  rear  chamber, 
the  opisthodomus,  which  made  the  end  facades  alike  (thus  com- 
pleting the  beauty  of  the  structure  as  an  isolated  edifice)  and  was 
also  useful  as  a  store  room  or  treasure  chamber.1  Such  was  the 
development  of  the  plan.  The  roof,  too,  underwent  an  important 
change,  and  from  a  flat  roof  of  earth  became  a  roof  of  two  slopes 
(saddle  roof)  covered  at  first  with  terracotta  tiles  and  later  some- 
times with  tiles  of  marble.  The  facades  at  the  ends  of  the  temple 
were  now  surmounted  by  gables. 

All  the  extant  monuments  are  entirely  of  stone,  but  the  forms 
of  their  various  members  may  be  explained  as  derived  from  wooden 
prototypes.  This  theory  of  their  derivation  is  supported  by  Vitru- 

1  It  cannot  be  proved  that  the  development  followed  chronologically  th« 
order  here  given,  which  is  merely  a  possible  or  probable,  because  a  logical 
order. 


no  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

vius,  the  only  ancient  writer  on  architecture  whose  work  has  been 
preserved,  and  by  the  work  of  the  Germans  on  the  Heraeum  at 
The  He-  Olympia  (Fig.  no),  which  is  the  oldest  structure  exca- 
raeum  at  vated  at  that  site  and  perhaps  in  all  Greece,  with  the 
exception,  of  course,  of  the  buildings  of  Prehellenic 
times.  The  Heraeum  is  supposed  by  some  authorities  to  have 
been  for  a  long  time  the  only  temple  at  Olympia  and  to  have  been 
shared  by  Zeus  and  Hera.  It  was  erected  not  later  than  the  sev- 
enth century  B.C.  and  perhaps  even  earlier.  The  stylobate  consists 
of  two  steps,  not  three  as  is  usual.  Six  columns  have  disappeared 
completely,  and  those  that  remain  exhibit  the  greatest  diversity  in 
diameter,  number  of  channels,  profiles  of  capitals,  constructional 
features,  and  even  materials.  Pausanias  says  one  column  in  the 
opisthodomus  was  of  oak.  Evidently  the  columns  were  origi- 
nally all  of  wood,  but  as  fast  as  they  decayed  they  were  replaced 
by  stone.  Moreover,  as  the  distance  between  the  columns  is  un- 
usually great,  and  as  no  stone  architraves  were  found,  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that  the  entablature  was  never  of  any  other  material 
than  wood.  The  lowest  part  of  the  wall  consisted  of  carefully 
dressed  stonework,  but  above  this  rose  walls  of  sun-dried  brick. 
The  antae  and  doors  were  sheathed  with  wood.  In  construction 
the  Heraeum  resembles  the  Mycenaean  megaron,  and  therefore 
serves  as  a  connecting  link  between  Mycenaean  buildings  and 
Greek  temples  of  historical  times.  The  wooden  Mycenaean  col- 
umn has  been  replaced,  possibly  under  Egyptian  influence,  by  the 
heavier  and  more  durable  stone  column,  which  is  made  more 
stable  by  tapering  upward.  The  earliest  temple  has  been  trans- 
lated into  a  material  in  which  a  gradual  and  continuous  process 
of  refinement  is  possible. 

THE  ORDERS 

Before  discussing  the  more  conspicuous  parts  of  Greek  buildings 
it  is  well  to  consider  briefly  the  foundations.  No  architects  seem  to 
have  appreciated  the  importance  of  these  better  than  the  Greeks. 
As  basements  occur  very  seldom  in  Greek  buildings,  foundations 


Foundations 


ARCHITECTURE  in 

are  naturally  found  only  under  walls  and  columns,  an  arrangement 
which  saved  both  material  and  labor.  The  depth  of  foundations 
varied  with  the  weight  to  be  carried,  but  when  pos- 
sible the  Greek  architect  laid  his  foundations  upon 
the  natural  rock,  going  down  twenty  courses  of  stone  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Parthenon.  The  native  rock  was  dressed  into  hori- 
zontal beds,  and  the  foundation  stones  were  then  laid  without 
mortar.  Where  rock  foundations  were  not  to  be  had,  a  layer 
of  sand,  or  sometimes  of  clay,  was  generally  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  trench  to  obtain  a  level  bed.  At  Ephesus  the  English 
architect  Wood  found  a  bed  of  charcoal  and  a  kind  of  mortar 
used  in  the  same  way.  At  Olympia  the  Heraeum  and  some  of 
the  treasuries  had  foundations  of  irregularly  shaped  stones,  but 


FIG.  74.  —  Foundations  of  the  Propylaea  at  Athens,  showing  second-hand 
material.     (Wiegand,  Porosarchitektur  der  Akropnlis,  Fig.  146.) 

most  frequently  squared  stones  were  employed,  of  any  good,  inex- 
pensive material,  laid  without  mortar,  and,  in  the  best  work,  care- 
fully bonded  together  with  iron.  Second-hand  material  was  often 
used  in  foundations,  as  in  those  of  the  Propylaea  at  Athens  (Fig. 
74).  The  voids  about  the  building  were  filled  in  with  stone  chips, 
rough  stones,  and  earth. 

Upon  the  foundations  rested  a  series  of  three  steps,1  called  the 

1  Steps  are  sometimes  absent,  especially  in  stoae,  where  they  would  interfere 
with  the  free  circulation  of  the  people.  In  porticoes  one  step  is  common, 
and  in  temples  (e.g.  the  "Theseum")  two  are  occasionally  found.  Both  the 


ii2  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

stylobate,1  which  in  its  turn  supported  the  columns.  The  floor  of 
the  portico  or  colonnade,  generally  flush  with  the  top  of  the  stylo- 
bate,  was  of  gravel  and  earth,  or  paved  with  stone.  The  floor  of 
the  cella  was  raised,  as  a  rule,  a  step  or  two  above  the  floor  level 
of  the  colonnade,  and  was  carefully  flagged. 

The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  Greek  temple  is  its  use 
of  columns  (Fig.  75).     There  are  two  styles,  the  Doric  and  the 


FIG.  75.  —  The  so-called  Theseum  at  Athens.     (Photograph.) 

Ionic  (for  the  Corinthian  style  is  but  a  development  of  the  Ionic), 
distinguished  by  their  characteristic  columns  and  entablatures. 

side  steps  and  the  front  steps  were  sometimes  laid  in  gentle  hyperbolic 
curves,  the  highest  points  of  which  are  halfway  between  the  corners  of  the  temple. 
The  curve  is  not  noticeable  unless  one  looks  for  it,  but  it  was  probably  intended 
to  arid  life  and  vigor  to  the  appearance  of  the  building.  Similar  curves 
are  found  also  in  architraves  and  cornices.  Large  temples  needed  inter- 
mediate steps,  e.g.  the  Parthenon,  where  at  the  east  and  west  ends  steps 
of  convenient  height  were  inserted.  In  other  cases  this  difficulty  was 
met  by  a  stone  ramp  or  inclined  plane,  a  dignified  arrangement  for  religious 
processions. 

1  Strictly  speaking,  the  stylobate  (<rTiAo/3dT7js)  is  only  the  upper  step,  on 
which  the  columns  stand.  The  entire  foundations,  both  above  and  below 
the  ground,  are  called  the  stereobate  ((rrepeo/SdT^s)  or  crepidoma  (/cpijir/5w/«i). 


ARCHITECTURE  113 


THE  DORIC  ORDER 

In  the  Doric  order  the  column  had  no  base,  but  rested  directly 
on  the  stylobate.  The  shaft  was  usually  built  up  of  drums  bonded 
together.  Its  axis  was  not  vertical,  but  slightly  in- 
clined inwards  toward  the  wall  of  the  cella.  The  The  column 
angle  columns  had  therefore  an  inclination  in  two  directions ;  that 
is,  along  a  line  bisecting  the  right  angle  at  the  corner  of  the  stylo- 
bate.1  Direction  and  life  were  given  to  the  column  by  a  series 
of  channels,  usually  twenty  in  number,  in  section  segments  of 
ellipses  or  of  circles  meeting  in  points.  The  diameter  of  the  shaft 
was  considerably  less  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  but  the  dimi- 
nution was  not  effected  in  a  straight  line ;  there  was  a  gentle  out- 
ward curve  between  the  foot  and  the  neck,  called  the  entasis* 
Thus  channelling  or  fluting  and  entasis  gave  to  this  supporting 
member  a  firm  and  elastic  appearance. 

The  conflict  between  the  upright  lines  of  the  column  and  the 

1  With  the  exception  of  the  bed  of  the  capital  and  that  of  the  lowest  drum 
on  the  stylobate,  which  were  horizontal,  all  the  beds  of  the  drums  were  in 
planes  at  right  angles  to  the  inclined  axis.     An  inclination  similar  to  that 
here  described  has  been  noted  in  the  columns  of  the  (Ionic)  Erechtheum. 

2  As  a  rule,  small  columns  had  no  entasis,  and    the   larger  the  column 
the  larger  the  entasis  in    proportion.     The  curve,  often  hyperbolic,  always 
rises  from  the  stylobate  with  an  inclination  toward  the  axis  of  the  column, 
and  the  greatest  distance  between  the  curve  and  a  straight  line  connecting 
the  circumference  at  the  foot  and  that  at  the  neck  occurs  from  one  third  to 
one  half  the  way  up  the  shaft. 

The  fluting  and  entasis  were  cut  in  the  following  way :  Before  the  lowest  drum 
was  set,  the  channels  were  carefully  marked  upon  the  under  surface  and  cut 
for  a  short  distance  up.  The  same  was  done  for  the  top  drum,  and  the  inter- 
mediate drums  were  left  unfinished  until  all  were  in  place.  The  precaution 
was  taken  to  leave  the  cutting  of  the  delicate  fluting  to  the  last.  The  top 
and  bottom  drums  were  used  as  guides  for  the  rest  of  the  work.  An  entire 
but  unfinished  column  of  the  Ionic  temple  at  Didyma  is  still  standing.  At 
the  top,  the  fluting  is  only  started.  The  base  is  still  buried  in  debris,  but  at 
every  joint  there  are  numbers,  in  the  Greek  foot  and  its  subdivisions,  cut  in 
the  stone,  which  indicate  the  finished  diameter  at  that  particular  joint. 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  8 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


The  capital 


horizontal  lines  of  the  entablature  came  at  the  capital  and  led  to  a 
change  from  the  Mycenaean  form.  The  column  was  made  smaller 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  perhaps  for  statical  rea- 
sons, causing  the  Doric  architrave  to  overhang  the  upper 
diameter  of  the  shaft.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  weight, 
both  real  and  apparent,  of  the  Doric  stone  entablature  was  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  Mycenaean,  wooden  entablature,  it  will  be 

seen  that  the  prob- 
lem of  finding  an 
appropriate  transi- 
tion was  difficult. 
The  egg-shaped 
moulding  of  the 
Mycenaean  capi- 
tal developed  into 
the  echinus  of  the 
Doric  capital,  the 
profile  of  which 
was  in  early  times 
much  curved  (Fig. 
76),  in  the  best 
period  a  beautiful 
elastic  curve,  and 
in  late  times  a  life- 
less oblique  line. 
The  concave  moulding  between  capital  and  shaft  disappears  in 
classical  times,  and  the  start  of  the  echinus  is  marked  by  three 
or  four  projecting  bands.  The  capital  and  the  beginning  of  the 
shaft  were  cut  from  the  same  block,  and  the  edge  of  the  joint 
between  this  stone  and  the  top  drum  of  the  shaft  was  bevelled 
to  prevent  chipping.  The  groove  thus  formed  has  been  called 
the  scamillusl  The  oft-repeated  grooves  at  this  point  in  late 

1  The  same  name  has  been  applied  to  the  similar  bevelling  at  the  bottom 
of  the  lowest  drum.  Both  here  and  at  the  neck  of  the  column  it  is  a  mis- 
nomer, probably  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  Vitruvius. 


FIG.  76.—  Capital  of  the  "Temple  of  Ceres"  at  Paestum. 
(Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  Text,  Fig.  20.) 


ARCHITECTURE 


times  are  mere  decoration.     Upon  the  echinus  was  a  square  block, 
the  abacus,  which  completed  the  capital. 

Upon  the  capital  rests  the  entablature  (Fig.  77),  consisting  of 
architrave  (epistyliori),  frieze,  and  cornice  (geisori).  The  architrave 
blocks  reach  from  column  to  column.  They  are  un-  The  entabia- 
decorated,  save  for  a  small  projecting  capping  moulding  ture 
(taenia),  below  which,  under  each  triglyph  of  the  frieze,  is  a  small 
cleat,  the  regula,  from 
which  six  little  guttae 
project  downwards 
(Fig.  78).  The  beams 
of  the  ceiling  nor- 
mally rest  directly  on 
the  architrave  and  ex- 
tend to  the  cella  wall. 
This  construction  is 
expressed  by  the  tri- 
glyphs  of  the  frieze, 
originally  a  sheathing 
of  the  ends  of  the 
beams,  and  thus  a 
reminiscence  of  wood 
construction.  Be- 
tween the  triglyphs 
are  the  metopes. 
These  were  gener- 
ally smooth  inserted 
blocks,  but  from  early 
times  they  were  often 
decorated  with  fig- 
ured reliefs.  There 
was  a  triglyph  over 
each  column  and  over 


I  LJLJ  LJ  LJ  l 


FIG.  77.  —  Capital,  entablature,  and  cornice  of  the 
Propylaea  at  Athens.  (Bohn,  Die  Propyl&en, 
PI.  XI.) 


the  middle  of  each  intercolumnia^tion.     A  triglyph  also  regularly 
occupied  the  corner.     This  made  a  special  arrangement  at  the 


lit 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


corners  necessary,  and  various  expedients  were  resorted  to  before 
the  best  icsult  was  attained.     Originally  all  the  intercolumniations 

were  equal,  and  the 
corner  triglyph  and  the 
metope  next  it  were 
widened.  At  Segesta 
the  axis  of  the  second 
column  from  the  cor- 
ner did  not  come  in 
the  axis  of  the  triglyph 
over  it.  The  most  sat- 
isfactory solution,  that 
employed  in  the  Par- 
thenon, was  to  widen 
the  corner  triglyph  and 
the  adjacent  metope 
slightly  and  at  the  same 
time  to  place  the  cor- 
ner column  nearer  the 
axis  of  the  building, 
making  the  interco- 
lumniation  nearest  the 
end  smaller  than  the 
rest,  and  thus  giving 
to  the  corner  as  a  whole  an  appearance  of  greater  strength. 

The  last  principal  member  of  the  entablature  is  the  cornice, 
designed  to  throw  the  rain  water  from  the  roof  away  from  the 
building.  Here,  again,  we  find,  even  in  historical  times,  a  remi- 
niscence of  the  Mycenaean  cornice,  with  its  beams  protected  by 
sheathing,  in  the  applied  terracotta  decoration  se- 
cured by  nails,  such  as  is  seen  in  the  treasury  of  the 
Geloans  at  Olympia  (Fig.  79)  and  the  middle  temple  on  the 
acropolis  at  Selinus.1  The  cornice  is  undercut  and  also  provided 

1  This  method  must  be  assumed  Ijpr  many  of  the  Western  temples  (particu- 
larly at  Metapontum,  Selinus,  and  Segesta),  and  was  handed  on  to  the  Etruscans. 


FlG.  78.  —  Doric  entablature.     (Koldewey  and 
Puchstein,  Text,  Fig.  92.) 


Cornice 


ARCHITECTURE 


117 


with  a  drip  at  its  front  edge,  to  prevent  rain  water  from  running 
down  the  frieze  and  the  members  below.  The  mutules,  over  each 
triglyph  and  metope,  are  a  reminiscence  of  construction  in  wood. 
Each  of  them  is  enlivened  by  three  rows  of  six  trunnels  or  guttae.1 
It  is  a  fact  to  be  noted  that  the  same  axial  unit  (i.e.  the  same 
distance  between  the  axes  of  regulae,  triglyphs,  and  mutules)  ap- 
pears in  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice.  This  is  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  Doric  order. 


FlG.  79.  —  Terracotta  sheathing,  treasury  of  the  Geloans.     (Olympia,  Vol.  I, 
PI.  XLI.) 

In  early  times  the  intercolumniation  is  small ;  in  the  old  temple 
of  Apollo  at  Syracuse  the  free  space  between  the  columns  is  even 
less  than  their  lower  diameter.  The  columns  of  this  period  are 
heavy,  with  marked  entasis  and  diminution,  their  height  being 
from  four  to  four  and  a  half  times  their  lower  diameter.  In  the 

temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  the  proportion  is  i  :  4.6,  _ 

Proportions 
in  the  Parthenon  i  :  5.5,  and  in  the  temple  at  Nemea 

i  :  6.     That  is,  the  columns  became  more  slender  as  time  ad- 
vanced.    The  diameter  at  the  top  and  the  bottom  became  more 

1  In  the  two  oldest  temples  at  Selinus  the  metopes  were  so  narrow  in  pro- 
portion to  the  triglyphs  that  only  half  mutules  were  placed  above  them.  This 
was  also  the  case  in  the  old  temple  of  Athena  at  Athens. 


n8 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


nearly  equal  (diminution  and  entasis  decreased),  while  the  capital 
became  relatively  smaller  both  in  height  and  breadth  (Fig.  80). 

There  was  a  change  of  proportions  in 
the  entablature,  also.  The  architrave, 
the  carrying  member,  was  at  first  higher 
than  the  frieze,  but  gradually  decreased 
in  height  until  the  relation  was  reversed, 
as  in  the  Parthenon.  The  height  of 
the  entablature,  as  a  whole,  was  slightly 
less  than  half  the  height  of  the  column 
in  early  buildings  and  slightly  less  than 
a  quarter  in  late  times. 

The  ceiling  of  the  peristyle  bound 
the  colonnade   to  the  cella  wall.    As 
time  went  on  the  relation  of 
the  beam  ends  to  the  tri- 
glyphs  was  lost ;  the  beams  were  spaced 
independently  of  the  triglyphs  and  were 
often  at  the  same  height  as  the  cor- 
nice.    Stone  buildings  sometimes  had 
ceilings  made  of  wooden  beams  covered  with  a  sheathing  of 


Delos.        Parthenon.  Corinth. 

FIG.  80. — Relative  proportions 
at  different  dates.  (Borr- 
mann,  Geschichte  der  Bau- 
kunst,  I,  Fig.  78.) 


FlG.  81. —  Ceiling  of  the  Opisthodomus  of  the  Parthenon.     (Durm,  Baukunst  der 
Griechen,  ad  ed.,  Fig.  114.) 


ARCHITECTURE 


119 


boards  and  with  small  mouldings1  nailed  along  the  upper  edges 
of  the  beams.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  treasury 
of  the  Megarians  at  Olympia.  A  richer  treatment  consists  of 
crossbeams,  with  planking  as  a  covering  —  the  coffered  ceiling. 
Stone  ceilings  developed  from  wooden  ones ;  stone  coffers  rested 
on  stone  beams  or 
stretched  directly  from 
entablature  to  cella 
wall  (Fig.  81). 

The  cella  wall   was 
built  of  uniform  blocks, 

Cella  wall     so    far    as 

and  ceiling  possible, 
except  the  lowest 
course,  which  was  of 
double  height  and  pro- 
jected ^  in.  to  \  in. 
from  the  wall  face.2 
Often  the  wall  had  a 
slight  inclination  (bat- 
ter) on  its  outside  face. 
At  the  front  and 
rear  porticoes  the  side 
walls  are  terminated  by 
antae  (Fig.  82),  which 
project  a  short  distance 


FlQ.  82. — Anta  capital  and  section  of  entablature. 
Propylaea,  Athens.  (Bohn,  Die  Propylaen,  PI. 
XI.) 


from  the  side  walls  and  have  a  similar  batter.  The  capitals  of  the 
antae  have  an  important  beak  moulding,  with  a  few  minor  mould- 
ings below,  and  a  slightly  projecting  neck  (Fig.  87). 

The  ceiling  of  the   cella  was   of  wood.     In  a  wide  cella  in- 

1  A  much  charred  separate  strip  of  carved  eggs  and  darts  (ovolo)  found  in 
one  of  the  cities  buried  by  Vesuvius  is  now  in  the  Museum  at  Naples. 

2  The    stones  of  this    course    are  called  orthostatae  (dpSoffrdrai) .      This 
course  is  no  doubt  a  reminiscence  of  the  course  of  stone  used  to  raise  walls  of 
crude  brick  above  the  danger  of  injury  from  the  wet,  etc.  (see  p.  97). 


t20  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

terior  supports  were  needed,  either  a  single  row  in  the  middle,  as 
in  some  early  structures,  or  two  rows,  with  the  central  nave  wider 
than  the  side  aisles,  as.  in  most  temples.  For  these  supports  a 
single  order  would  have  taken  up  too  much  space,  so  one  order 
was  placed  above  another.  This  is  now  best  seen  in  the  ruins  of 
the  "temple  of  Poseidon  "  at  Paestum  (Fig.  83).  This  arrange- 


FlG.  83.  —  Interior  of  "temple  of  Poseidon,"  Paestum.     (Perrot  and  Chipiez, 
Vol.  VII,  p.  383.) 

ment  lent  itself  to  the  installation  of  a  gallery  approached  by  stairs, 
traces  of  which  still  exist  in  some  cases.  In  late  times  the  double 
order  was  supplanted  by  simple  rows  of  tall,  slender  Ionic  or 
Corinthian  columns. 

In  the  fully  developed   Greek   temple   the   principal   facades 

had  gables,  the  raking  cornices  of  which  differed  from 

the  horizontal  cornice  by  having  no  mutules.      The 

triangular  space  between  the  horizontal  and  raking  cornices,  the 


121 


FIG.  84. 


pediment,1  was  often  embellished  with  groups  of  sculpture.  Be- 
tween the  two  gables  is  the  covering  of  the  whole  building,  a 
double  pitched  (saddle)  roof.  Upon  a  ridgepole  and  intermediate 
beams  parallel  to  it  rested  rafters  which  lay  parallel  to  the  slope 
of  the  gables.  The  tiles  of  the  roof  rested  either  directly  upon 
the  rafters  or  upon  a  bed  of  clay  carried  by  boarding  which  was 
laid  upon  the  rafters.  The  tiles 
were  usually  of  terracotta,  a 
material  which  weathered  at 
least  as  well  as  marble,  though 
marble  tiles  were  used  on  some 
of  the  more  elaborate  buildings. 
The  cover  tiles  at  the  cornice 
were  often  decorated  with  col- 
ored or  sculptured  disks,  called 
antefixes,  and  the  tiles  on  the 
ridge  were  similarly  adorned. 
The  apex  of  the  pediment  was 
usually  adorned  with  a  large 
disk,  with  a  palmette  anthemion, 
or  with  sculpture,  and  the  two 
other  angles  of  the  pediment 
received  a  similar  treatment. 
These  ornaments  were  called 
acroteria.  Several  varieties  or 
systems  of  tiles  exist.  The  ear- 
liest system  is  shown  in  Figure 
84,  then  follows  the  system 


FIG.  85. 


FIG. 


FIGS.  84-86.  —  Roof  Tiles.    (Drawings 
by  G.  P.  S.) 


shown  in  Figure  85,  and  last  of  all  that  shown  in  Figure  86.2  The 
sima  extends  up  the  gable  to  prevent  water  from  running  over  the 
pediment  (cp.  Fig.  79).  Along  the  sides  of  the  temple  it  is  gen- 
erally omitted ;  if  it  occurs,  a  simple  waterspout  or  a  lion's  head, 

1  The  .wall  of  the  pediment  is  called  the  tympanum. 

2  Flat  tiles,  pierced  for  light  or  ventilation,  with  rims  to  prevent  water  from 
running  in,  have  been  found  at  Bassae  and  Pompeii. 


122 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Color 


through  which  the  water  is  discharged,  generally  comes  opposite  each 

flat  tile  of  the  roof,  and  the  antefixes  are  then  poised  upon  the  sima. 
Color,  applied  according  to  a  fairly  consistent  rule,  completed 

the  general  effect  of  the  building.1  Marble  walls  were  sometimes 
entirely  colored  or  sometimes  decorated  with  designs. 
Poros  and  other  kinds  of  coarse  stone  were  covered 

with  a  thin  coating  of  fine  stucco  mixed  with  any  desired  pigment. 

Thus  different  materi- 
als could  be  employed 
and  concealed  in  the 
same  building.  The 
capitals  of  antae  (Fig. 
87)  received  brilliant 
colors,  but  there  is  no 
proof  that  the  capitals 
of  columns  were  col- 
ored, except  that  a 
strong  red  was  applied 
between  the  rings  at 
the  necking.  The  soffit 
of  the  cornice,  the  top 
border  of  the  metopes, 
and  the  taenia  were 
red ;  the  mutules,  the 
triglyphs,  and  the  regu- 
lae  were  blue  ;  the  gut- 
tae  on  the  regulae  and 
on  the  mutules  were 


FIG.  87.— Anta  capital.      (Penrose,    Principles  of 
Athenian  Architecture,  PL  26.) 


sometimes  red,  sometimes  white.     Color  was  thus  used  to  make 
certain  parts  stand  out.     The  metopes  were  white,  except  when 

1  The  color  scheme  here  outlined  may  have  admitted  variations.  It  is, 
however,  closely  followed  on  a  remarkably  well-preserved  Doric  capital  and 
cornice  from  Selinus  (now  in  the  Museum  at  Palermo),  which  is  covered 
with  a  fine  stucco  highly  colored.  There  are  other  good  examples  of  colored 
decoration  at  Olympia  and  Athens. 


ARCHITECTURE 


123 


sculptured,  in  which  case  the  background  was  usually  red.  For 
sculptured  friezes  and  pediment  groups  the  color  treatment  was 
simple  at  first  and  perfected  later.  The  backgrounds  were  red  or 
blue,  and  certain  parts  of  the  figures  were  picked  out  in  color  and 
decorated  with  accessories  of  metal.  In  early  times  the  entire 
figures  were  colored.  The  simas  had  a  palmette  decoration  with 
varying  colors.  The  taenia  and  the 
band  above  the  triglyphs  received  a 
fret.  Sometimes  on  the  capitals  of 
the  antae  the  abacus  had  a  fret,  the 
hawk's  beak  a  brilliant  pattern  of 
varying  colors,  and  the  neck  painted 
palmettes  and  tendrils  growing  out 
from  conventional  stems.  The  ante- 
fixes  often  received  a  palmette  pat- 
tern (Fig.  88).  The  ceilings  were 
even  more  richly  decorated  than  the 
entablatures.  The  recessed  coffers 
had  a  blue  ground,  on  which  were  stars  or  other  ornaments  in 
light  tones  or  gilding,  while  the  mouldings  of  the  coffers  were 
decorated  with  painted  egg  and  dart  (ovolo)  or  Lesbian  patterns 
(Fig.  8 1 ) .  Sometimes  the  under  surfaces  of  the  beams  had  a  painted 
fret  or  honeysuckle  pattern,  while  the  crowning  mouldings  of  the 
beams  were  decorated  like  the  ovolo  mouldings  of  the  coffers.1 
The  inner  walls  of  the  cella  had  sometimes  a  free  treatment  in 
color  in  early  times,  and  were  later  sometimes  adorned  with  reliefs. 

The  mouldings  used  with  the 
Doric  order  are  few.  The  ovolo 
appears  in  the  neck 
of  the  capitals  of  col- 
umns and  in  the  sima ;  the  bird's 
beak  is  used  as  a  crowning  and 
supporting  member;  the  "cyma 

1  The  design  was  scratched  on  the  moulding  and  the  color  applied  by  the 
encaustic  process,  which  employed  wax  and  heat. 


FlG.  88.  —  Palmette  antefix. 
(Olympia,  Vol.  II,  PI.  118.) 


Mouldings 


FlG.  89.— Doric  mouldings.  (G.  P.S., 
after  Pen  rose.) 


124 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


reversa"  is  used  as  a  supporting  member  and  occasionally  for 
simas  (Fig.  89).  Moulded  members  are  subordinated  to  the 
rigid  lines  of  the  Doric  order. 

THE  IONIC  ORDER 

The  Doric  order  was  developed  from  a  Mycenaean  prototype, 
as  we  have  seen,  and  its  development  took  place  in  continental 
Greece  and  the  Western  colonies.  The  Ionic  order,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  developed  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  neighboring  islands. 
Only  one  early  Ionic  temple,  that  at  Locri,  is  found  in  the  West. 
The  development  of  the  Ionic  order  from  wooden  prototypes  is 
even  clearer  than  that  of  the  Doric  order,  although  no  single  monu- 
ment throws  so  much  light  upon  its  early  history  as  is  shed  upon 
that  of  the  Doric  order  by  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia. 

UUUUUUUUUW 


FlG.  90.  —  Ionic  base,  Samos.  ( Perrot 
and  Chipiez,  Vol.  VI  I<  Fig.  268.) 


FlG.  91.  —  Ionic  base,  1'ergamon.  (Die 
Ergebnisse  der  Ausgrabungen  zu 
Pergamon,  PI.  10.) 


The  column 


The  Ionic  column  consists  of  base,  shaft,  and  capital.  The 
base  (Fig.  90),  which  lifts  the  slender  shaft  above  the  stylo  bate  and 
gives  it  an  appearance  of  stability,  consists  in  early 
times  of  trochilus  (concave),  torus  (convex),  and 
astragalus  (small,  convex) .  In  Asia  Minor  a  common  type  has  two 
trochili  separated  by  two  astragals  and  surmounted  by  a  torus,  the 
whole  standing  upon  a  special  plinth  (Fig.  91).  The  Attic  base  con- 
sists of  two  toruses  separated  by  a  trochilus  (Fig.  92).  This  is  the 
type  commonly  adopted  in  Roman,  mediaeval,  and  modern  times. 

The  shaft  is  more  slender  than  the  Doric  shaft,  and  has  less 
diminution  and  entasis.  In  the  earliest  examples  the  channels  are 


ARCHITECTURE 


125 


FIG.  92. — Attic  base,  Erechtheum. 
(Photograph.) 


many  and   meet   in   sharp 

edges ;  in  the  best  period 

they  are  twenty-four  in  num- 
ber,   each   separated    from 

the  next  by  a  narrow  flat 

surface  (arris}.     The  sec- 
tion through  these  channels 

is  a  segment  of  a  circle  or 

of  a  flattened  ellipse,  and 

they  end  at  top  and  bottom 

in  the  same  curves.    In  the 

temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephe- 

sus    (both    the    temple   of 

the  fourth  century  and  its 

predecessor)  the  lowest  drum  of  some  of  the  columns  was  unfluted 

and  decorated  with  reliefs  (see  Figs.  157  and  195). 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Ionic  order  is  the  volute 

capital.     This  was  probably  derived  from  a  short  rectangular  piece 

, of    wood    or      Volute 

bolster,  in-  capital 
serted  between  the  shaft 
of  the  column  and  the 
architrave,  the  ends  of  the 
bolster  projecting  down- 
ward to  give  a  secure  bear- 
ing for  the  shaft.  Then 
two  spirals,  not  united, 
and  wound  in  diminishing 
curves  each  about  an  eye, 
were  painted  on  the  bol- 
ster. Next  the  volutes 
were  transferred  to  stone 
(Aeolic  type;  Fig.  93) 
and  finally  joined  (Fig. 


FIG.  93.  —  Aeolic  type  ol  capital. 
Lesbos,  PI.  16.) 


(Koldewey, 


FlG.  94.  —  Capital  of  the  Naxian  column  at  Del- 
phi.    (Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Vol.  VII,  PI.  54.) 


94).    The  transition  from 


126 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


FIG.  95.  —  Corner  capital  of  temple 
of  Athena  Nike.  (Ross,  Schau- 
bert,  and  Hansen,  Tempel  der 
Nike  Apteros,  PI.  IX.) 


the  round  shaft  to  the  rectangular 
capital  was  effected  by  a  circular 
intermediate  member  (sometimes 
called  the  echinus)  crowning  the 
shaft  and  projecting  from  it.  Each 
of  the  triangular  spaces  between 
the  volutes  and  this  crowning 
moulding  was  filled  with  a  small 
leaf  (Fig.  95).  The  front  and  side 
faces  of  the  Ionic  capital  were  dif- 
ferent. The  side  face  was  con- 
tracted on  the  axis  with  a  girth,  or 
sometimes  there  were  several  bead 
and  reel  (astragal)  bands.  The  two 
outer  faces  of  a  corner  capital  had 
to  be  alike,  and  this  necessity 
brought  a  volute  along  the  diag- 
onal on  the  outside  corner  of  the 
capital  and  two  intersecting  volutes 
on  the  inside  (Fig.  95).  This  irreg- 
ularity led  in  later  times  to  capitals 


with  volutes  on  all  four  diagonals,  a  form  of  Ionic  capital  much  used 
by  the  Romans.  The 
transition  from  capital 
to  architrave  was  ef- 
fected by  a  carved 
or  painted  projecting 
member  (sometimes 
called  the  abacus).  As 
types  of  early  capitals 
may  be  cited  those  of 
the  old  temple  at  Ephe- 
sus  and  of  the  Naxian 
column  at  Delphi  (Fig. 
94).  Some  Ionic  capi- 


FlG.  96.  —  Capital  of  the  Erechtheum.  (Photograph.) 


127 


Entablature 


tals  are  more  elaborate,  as  those  of  the  Erechtheum  (Fig.  96)  and 
of  the  old  Ionic  temple  at  Locri,  where  there  is  a  rich  anthemion 
band  at  the  top  of  the  shaft. 

In  considering  the  development  of  the  entablature,  it  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  the  frieze  was  not  an  essential  part.     The  en- 
tablature 
of    Lycian 

tombs,  which  evidently 
reproduces  in  stone  a 
wooden  entablature 
composed  of  archi- 
traves, ends  of  beams, 
and  gutter,  represents, 
perhaps,  the  prototype 
of  the  Ionic  entabla- 
ture.1 The  arrangement 
in  these  Lycian  tombs 
is  about  as  follows  :  the 
architrave  is  composed 
of  two  or  three  slight- 
ly projecting  fascias, 
crowned  by  one  or  two 
carved  projecting  mem- 
bers. On  the  archi- 
trave rest  the  heads  of 
the  closely  spaced 
beams,  which  support 
the  roof  terrace.  In  the 
Ionic  style,  the  ends  of 
beams  are  shrunk  into 
purely  decorative  den- 

tels,  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Ionic  entablature.  In 
the  Attic  Ionic  style  the  dentels  are  lacking,  but  above  the  archi- 

1  Possibly  the  Asiatic  megaron,  as  found  at  Troy,  is  the  prototype  of  the 
Ionic  temple. 


FIG.  97.  — 
Priene. 


onic   capital,   architrave,  and   cornice, 
(Wiegand  and  Schrader,  Priene,  Fig. 


128 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


trave  is  a  frieze,  which  is  often  covered  with  a  continuous  band  of 
reliefs.  The  cornice,  with  or  without  dentels,  rests,  then,  in  the 
one  case  upon  the  architrave,  in  the  other  upon  the  frieze.  It  has 
as  a  leading  feature  a  fascia  strongly  offset  from  the  face  of  the 
architrave  (or  frieze)  and  with  an  important  bed  moulding.  The 
fascia  itself  is  crowned  by  a  carved  member  (Fig.  97).  Dentels 
do  not  occur  in  the  raking  cornice. 

The  height  of  the  Doric  column   is  in  later  times  six  times  the 
lower  diameter.     That  of  the  Ionic  column  is  eight  and  a  half  to 

nine  and  a  half  times  the  lower  diameter.     The  inter- 
Proportions  ....  .  .      _ 

colummation  is  also  much  greater  than  in  the  Doric 

style,  the  axial  distance  of  the  columns  being  two  and  a  half  to 
three  times  their  lower  diameter.  The  height  of  the  entablature 
of  the  temple  of  Athena  at  Priene,  which  had  no  frieze,  was  about 
one  sixth  of  the  height  of  the  column,  or  one  and  one  half  times 
its  lower  diameter.  In  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike  and  the 
Erechtheum,  which  had  friezes,  the  height  of  the  entablature  was 
somewhat  less  than  one  fourth  of  that  of  the  column,  or  two  diam- 
eters. The  Ionic  order  is  char- 
acterized by  slender  proportions, 
richness,  and  subtlety  of  design ; 
the  Doric  order  by  solidity  and 
simplicity. 

The  roofing  of  Ionic  buildings 
was  similar  to  that  of  Doric  build- 
ings, described  above.  The  stone 
ceilings  resembled  those  of  Doric 
edifices,  but  were  a  little  more 
elaborate.  The  best  examples 
are  the  ceilings  of  the  north  porch 
of  the  Erechtheum  and  of  the 
main  building  of  the  Propylaea,  both  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens. 
As  in  the  Doric  style,  the  antae  have  special  capitals  (Fig.  98)  the 
Attic  examples  of  which,  consisting  of  carved  crowning  members 
with  raised  anthemion  below,  are  especially  fine  (Fig.  99).  These 


FlG.  98. —  Ionic  anta  capital,  Samo- 
thrace.  (Borrmann,  Geschichte  der 
Baukunst,  I,  Fig.  92.) 


ARCHITECTURE 


129 


members,  as  well  as  the  base  mouldings  of  the  antae,  were  fre- 
quently carried  along  the  wall  completely  round  the  building, 
giving  greater  unity  to 
the  design.  In  gen- 
eral, the  ornamented 
members  are  much 
more  important  than 
are  those  of  the  Doric 
order. 

The  Greeks  seem  to 
have  been  the  first  to 
develop  highly  the  use 


Ornament 


of  pure  ar- 


FiG.  99.  —  Attic  Ionic  anta  capital,  Erechtheum. 
(Photograph.) 


chitectural 

ornament.  The  chief 
ornaments  in  use  were 
the  bead  and  reel  (astragal),  the  egg  and  dart  (ovolo),  and  the 
Lesbian,  for  mouldings,  and  the  palmette  for  flat  surfaces,  though 
the  latter  ornament  was  also  used  on  simas.  The  simple  palmette 
forms  of  the  'sixth  century  B.C.  became  richer  in  the  best  period 
by  the  addition  of  acanthus  leaves  and  tendrils  ;  and  before  Alexan- 
drian times  the  scroll  was  introduced.  Most,  or  even  all,  of  these 
ornaments  may  have  originated  in  Egypt  or  the  East,  but  to  all 
that  they  borrowed  the  Greeks  added  something  modern  and 
Hellenic. 

THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER 

The  Corinthian  order  is  not  really  a  distinct  and  separate  order, 
but  rather  a  new  combination  of  elements  already  known.  In- 
deed, the  base  and  the  fluted  shaft  differ  in  no  respect  from  those 
of  the  Ionic  order.  The  capital  alone  is  a  more  independent 
invention,  and  even  in  this  earlier  elements  are  present.  The 
earliest  known  instance  of  its  use  is  in  the  fifth  century,  in  the 
temple  at  Bassae,  a  work  ascribed  to  Ictinus,  the  architect  of 
the  Parthenon,  but  its  greatest  popularity  was  in  Hellenistic  and 

GREEK   ARCH. — 9 


1 3o 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Roman  times.  In  the 
fully  developed  Corin- 

The  capital  thian  capi- 
and  entab-  tal  the  core 
lature  is  circular 

in  section  and  has 
the  shape  of  an  in- 
verted bell;  the  lower 
part  of  this  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  double 


FlG.  101. —  Base,  capital,  and  archi- 
trave of  monument  of  Lysicrates. 
(Borrmann,  Geschichte  der  Ar- 
ckitcktur,  I,  Fig.  97.) 


FlG.  100.  —  Corinthian  capital.    Epidaurus. 
(Photograph.) 

row  of  acanthus  leaves  with  their 
points  curving  over,  and  behind  the 
leaves  rise  graceful  volutes,  which  sup- 
port the  angles  of  the  abacus.  This 
last  is  not  square,  but  slightly  concave 
on  its  four  faces,  thus  giving  space  for 
a  palmette  or  a  rosette  on  each  face 
(Fig.  100).  The  transition  from  the 
cylindrical  shaft  to  the  nearly  square 
abacus  was  managed  with  great  skill. 
The  oldest  Corinthian  structure  at 
Athens,  the  monument  of  Lysicrates 
(335-334  B.C.),  has  a  pure  Ionic 
entablature  (Figs.  101, 134),  and  the 
same  sort  of  entablature  appears  also 
in  connection  with  the  Corinthian 
order  in  post-classical  works.  In 
late  times,  the  frieze,  if  not  decorated 
with  sculpture,  often  had  a  curved 
outline.  Another  rather  late  inno- 
vation is  the  introduction  of  con- 
sole blocks  in  the  cornice,  which 
then  has  three  principal  members, 


ARCHITECTURE 


132 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


dentels,  consoles,  and  fascia,  each  with  its  supporting  and  crown- 
ing mouldings.  This  is  the  form  of  Corinthian  cornice  adopted 
by  the  Romans. 

Color  was  employed  with  the   Corinthian  order,  as   with   the 
Doric  and  Ionic,  but  the  limits  of  its  use  are  less  easy  to  define. 

It  was  applied  to 
backgrounds  to  make 
details  stand  out ; 
where  carved  mem- 
bers were  few,  the 
plain  members  were 
painted,  and  when 
surfaces  were  en- 
riched with  carving, 
the  greater  the  relief 
the  less  the  need  of 
color.  Corinthian 
capitals  were  some- 
times colored,  as, 
for  example,  those 
of  the  propylaea  at 
Olympia,  on  which 
the  leaves  were  green 
and  yellow  and  the 
background  red.  In 
Hellenistic  and  Ro- 
man times  color  was 
very  freely  used  and  had  to  atone  for  many  defects. 

The  types  of  supports  and  capitals  employed  in  Greek  architec- 
ture were  not  confined  to  those  already  mentioned.     Many  new 
and  rich  motives  were  used,  such  as  heads,  animals,  and  symbolic 
emblems.     The  Greek  architect  also  employed  the  human  figure, 
Human       sometimes  engaged,  sometimes  standing  free,  as  a  sup- 
figures       port  for  an  architrave.   The  colossal  supporting  figures 
(Atlantes,  Telamones)  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Girgenti  (Fig.  105) 


FlG.  103.  —  Treasury  of  the  Cnidians.     Delphi. 
(Photograph.) 


ARCHITECTURE  133 

recall  the  so-called  Osiriac  columns  of  Egypt ;  and  the  treatment 
of  the  Caryatides  of  the  Erechtheum  (Fig.  102)  solved  for  all  time 
the  difficulties  involved  in  blending  the  repose  needed  in  an 
architectural  support  with  the  life  and  movement  of  the  human 
figure.1 

The  orders  of  the  Greeks  display  not  only  considerable  liberty, 
but  also  more  thoughtful  distinction  between  supporting  and  crown- 
ing members  than  any  other  style,  except  the  Gothic ;  and  while 
the  architecture  of  other  peoples  has  remained  a  matter  of  merely 
historical  interest,  the  Greek  orders  still  find  abundant  use  in 
modern  architecture. 

THE  TEMPLE2 

The  developed  Greek  temple  is  merely  the  Mycenaean  megaron 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  colonnades.  Raised  upon  three  steps, 
the  temple  presents  to  the  east  its  gabled  facade,  in  front  of  which 
stands  an  altar  for  burnt  offerings.  A  sacred  precinct  (peribolus) 
with  one  or  more  entrances  (propylaea)  generally  surrounds  the 
temple.  Within  the  temple  is  but  one  room  of  importance,  the 
cella,  in  which,  opposite  the  entrance,  stands  the  statue  of  the 
deity  to  whom  the  temple  is  dedicated.  Before  the  statue  is  a 
table  for  offerings.  Most  Greek  temples  are  of  moderate  size, 
nearly  all  the  largest  being  found  in  the  colonies. 

The  simplest  plan  is  that  of  the  temple  in  anfis,  in  which 
a  vestibule,  or  pronaos,  lies  between  the  prolongations  of  the 

side  walls  of  the  cella.     In  temples  of  this  type  there 

Plans 
is  often  a  vestibule  at  each  end,  the  western  one  being 

called   the  opisthodomus  (the  Latin  name  is  posticum) ;  but  the 

1  The  treasuries  of  the  Cnidians  (Fig.  103)  and  of  the  Siphnians  at  Delphi 
afford  early  examples  of  free  standing  Caryatides,  here  in  antis.     Pausanias 
(III,  n)  and  Vitruvius  (I,  i)  mention  figures  in  Persian  costume  used  as 
supports  at  Sparta. 

2  The  Greek  orders  were  developed  chiefly  in  the  building  of  temples,  as 
the  Gothic  style  was  developed  in  church  building.     Some  of  the  character- 
istics of  temples  have  therefore  been  described  in  the  sections  on  the  ordera 


i34  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

cella  has  only  one  door,  that  at  the  east.  If  a  row  of  columns 
extends  across  the  whole  facade,  the  temple  becomes  prostyle 
(TTpoo-TuAos),  or,  if  both  ends  are  treated  as  colonnades,  amphi pro- 
style (d/A^iTr/aocrTTjAos).1  If  the  cella  and  the  vestibules  are  entirely 
surrounded  by  columns,  the  temple  is  peripteral  (Tre/aiVrepos)  or 
peristyle  (TrepicmAos).  The  earliest  known  example  of  this  form 
is  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia.  The  typical  Doric  temple  of  the 
classical  period  is  a  structure  with  six  columns  at  each  end  and 
from  eleven  to  seventeen  (most  frequently  thirteen)  on  each 
side.  A  few  departures  from  the  general  type  may  be  mentioned. 
Occasionally  double  temples,  dedicated  to  two  or  more  deities, 
occur,  such  as  the  Erechtheum  at  Athens.  In  some  cases  there 
was  a  room  behind  the  cella,  which  might  be,  as  in  the  Parthenon, 
a  treasure  chamber,  or,  as  seems  to  have  been  the  case  in  temples 
at  Selinus,  an  inner  sanctuary.  In  the  Ionic  temples  at  Ephesus 
and  Didyma,  near  Miletus,  there  were  two  enclosed  spaces,  or 
antechambers,  one  between  the  cella  and  the  pronaos,  the  other 
between  the  cella  and  the  opisthodomus. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  broad  cella  needed  interior  supports  for  the 
roof.  The  earliest  arrangement  was  a  row  of  supports  down 

Interior  tne  middle,  dividing  the  cella  into  two  equal  aisles, 
supports  Examples  of  this  system  are  to  be  found  in  the  old 
temple  at  Thermon,  in  Aetolia,  the  so-called  Basilica  at  Paestum, 
and  the  early  Ionic  temple  at  Locri.  It  may  be  noticed  in 
passing  that  this  system  resembles  that  seen  in  porticoes  which 
bordered  public  squares.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the 
temple  at  Thermon  (with  five  columns  at  each  end  and  fifteen 
at  each  side),  in  which  the  outer  and  inner  supports  lined  with 
each  other.  The  row  of  central  supports,  a  bad  arrangement 
for  a  temple  containing  a  single  statue,  was  superseded  by  a 
scheme  of  three  aisles,  in  which  the  central  aisle  was  the  widest ; 
the  door  was  at  the  eastern  end,  and  the  statue  at  the  western 

1  The  antae  and  the  inner  columns  of  the  pronaos  and  opisthodomus  of 
Ionic  peripteral  temples  are  in  line  with  the  columns  of  the  peristyle,  both  at 
the  ends  and  at  the  sides.  No  such  rule  prevails  in  Doric  temples. 


ARCHITECTURE  135 

end.  The  earliest  known  example  of  this  arrangement  is  the 
Heraeum  at  Olympia,  where  every  alternate  interior  column  was 
originally  joined  to  the  walls  of  the  cella  by  a  short  wall,  form- 
ing a  row  of  chapels  at  each  side  of  the  nave.  The  interior 
columns  lined  with  the  outside  columns,  so  that  the  roof  had  a 
good  system  of  supports.  Perhaps  the  original  roof  was  a  heavy 
flat  terrace  of  earth.  The  connecting  walls  may  have  been  re- 
moved and  free  interior  columns  put  in  when  the  temple  received 
a  pitched  roof  of  wood  and  tiles.  The  three-aisled  system  was 
almost  universally  adopted,  even  where,  as  in  the  temple  of 
Aphaia  at  Aegina,  the  width  of  the  cella  was  not  great  enough 
to  require  interior  supports. 

The  temples  received  the  daylight  only  through  the  door,  which 
was  broad  and  high.     It  is  probable,  however,  that  artificial  light 

was  supplied  bv  lamps.     The  theory,  based  upon  a 

Lighting 
misunderstanding  of  the  text   of  Vitruvius,  that  the 

Greek  temple  had  a  great  opening  (hypaetkrum)  in  the  roof  has 
been  entirely  abandoned,1  and  the  windows  in  the  eastern  cella 
of  the  Erechtheum2  are  among  the  exceptional  features  of  that 
remarkable  building. 

The    development  of  Doric  architecture  may  best  be  studied 
in  the  temples  at  Selinus,  Girgenti,  and  Syracuse,  all  in   Sicily, 

and  at  Metapontum  and  Paestum,  in  southern  Italy,  „ 

,    Temples  of 
which  exhibit  interesting  variations  from  the  normal  siciiyand 

type  of  temple  described  above.     The  oldest  temple  at  Magna 
Selinus  (temple  C)  and  the  Olympieum  at  Syracuse 
have  the  same  number  of  columns  as  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia 
(6  and  17),  but  no  interior  supports.     At  Selinus  most  of  the  tem- 
ples had  an  inner  sanctuary  (aSvrov)  for  the  statue  and  no  opistho- 
domus,  and  in  two  the  pronaos  was  omitted,  but  the  cella  could 

1  At  Bassae  a  roof  tile  was  found  in  which  is  a  hole  measuring  8  by  12 
inches,  and  similar  tiles  have  been  found  at  Pompeii.     Such  openings  might 
serve  to  ventilate,  or  even  to  light,  the  space  between  the  ceiling  and  the 
roof,  but  could  hardly  supply  light  to  the  cella. 

2  See  American  Jotirnal  of  Archaeology,  Vol.  X,  1906,  pp   47-71. 


136. 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


still  be  closed  by  movable  doors.     In  the  great  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Selinus  (Fig.  106),  and  the  so-called  temple  of  Ceres  at  Paestum 

(Fig.  104),  the  pronaos 
was  very  deep;1  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo  at 
Syracuse,  there  were  two 
rows  of  columns  before 
the  pronaos.  In  tem- 
ple F  at  Selinus,  which 
had  six  columns  at  the 
ends  and  fourteen  at  the 


FIG.  104.  —  Plan  of  "temple  of  Ceres,"  Paestum. 
(Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  Fig.  23.) 


sides,  a  stone  barrier  connected  the  columns  up  to  half  their  height, 
thus  completely 
enclosing  the  peri- 
style.2 TheOlym- 
pieum  (Fig.  105) 
at  Girgenti  was 
of  colossal  dimen- 
sions and  instead 
of  a  peristyle  had 
columns  engaged 
in  the  walls,  while 
on  the  upper  part 
of  the  walls  were 
male  figures  sup- 
porting the  entab- 
lature. The  tem- 
ple measured  on 
the  upper  step 

m.  (151   ft.  ii  in. 


by  372  ft.  2\  in.), 


FlG.  105.  —  The  Olympieum  at  Girgenti.     (Koldewey 
and  Puchstein,  Fig.  143.) 


1  Similar  deep  vestibules  appear  in  Etruscan  and  Roman  temples. 

2  If  the  temple  was  dedicated  to   Demeter,  the  barrier  may  have  been 
demanded  by  the  peculiar  needs  of  her  cult 


ARCHITECTURE 


137 


and  from  the  upper  step  to  the  top  of  the  cornice  27.50  m.  (90  ft. 
2f  in.).  The  interior  was  divided  into  three  aisles  of  almost  equal 
width,  and  the  interior  sup- 
ports lined  with  the  exter- 
nal piers.  This  mighty 
work  was  begun  about 
480  B.C.  and  was  still  un- 
finished when  the  city  was 
sacked  by  the  Carthagin- 
ians in  406.  Another  vari- 
ation from  the  classical 


•  •ooo 
o 

•  •  •- 
• 

•  • 

•  o  o  •- 
o 


•ooo^oo^o 


P'JG.  106.  —  Plan  of  Temple  of  Apollo,  Selinus. 
(Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  p.  124.) 


norm  is  seen  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Selinus.  This  also  was 
of  colossal  size,  measuring  50.11  m.  by  110.36  m.  (164  ft.  5  in.  by 
362  ft.  i  in.)  on  the  upper  step,  and  was  never  finished.  It  was  a 
peripteral  temple,  with  eight  columns  on  the  front  and  seventeen 
on  the  sides  (Fig.  106)  ;  the  entrance  vestibule  was  unusually 
deep  ;  the  interior  had  three  aisles  of  almost  equal  width,  each 
with  its  entrance  door,  and  at  the  end,  opposite  the  middle  door, 
was  an  enclosed  space  for  the  statue. 


FlG.  107. —  Plan  of  "  Basilica,"  Paestum.     (Koldewey  and  Puschstein,  Fig.  15.) 

At  Paestum  there  are  three  important  early  Doric  temples ;  the  so- 
called  Basilica,  the  so-called  temple  of  Ceres,  or  Demeter,  and  the 
so-called  temple  of  Poseidon.  The  "Basilica"  has  nine  columns  in 
front  and  eighteen  on  the  side,  and  a  pronaos  in  an/is.  A  central 
row  of  columns  divides  the  interior  into  two  naves  (Fig.  107).  The 


138 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


unusual  decoration  at  the  necking  of  the  capitals  (Fig.  108,  a)  is  not 
exactly  alike  on  all  the  columns.  Similar  decoration  is  seen  on  the 
capitals  of  the  so-called  temple  of  Ceres  (Fig.  76,  p.  114).  These 
temples  both  have  architraves,  the  top  members  of  which  are  with- 


^Basilijjau 


FlG.  108.  —  Necking  of  columns  at  Paestum.     (Durm,  Baukunst  der  Griechen, 

Fig.  68.) 

out  guttae  and  somewhat  resemble  the  crowning  mouldings  of  the 
Ionic  architrave.  The  "temple  of  Ceres"  has  a  Doric  frieze,  but 
the  cornice  is  heavily  coffered.  The  raking  cornice  has  a  short 
horizontal  portion  at  each  corner  of  the  temple.  The  "temple 

of  Poseidon  "  con- 
forms very  closely 
to  the  normal  type 
of  the  Doric  tem- 
ple. It  has  six  col- 
umns on  the  front 
and  fourteen  on 

the  side,  with  pro- 
naog  and  op{sthO- 


c 


: 


FlG.  109.—  Plan  of  "temple  of  Poseidon,"  Paestum. 
(Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  Fig.  30.) 


domus  in  an/is  and  a  three-aisled  Interior  (Fig.  109).  On  the 
upper  step  the  temple  measures  59.90  m.  by  24.14  m.  (196  ft. 
6  in.  by  79  ft.  2  in.).  The  proportions  of  the  facades,  the  details  of 
the  mouldings,  and  the  scientific  bonding  of  the  stones  all  testify  to 


ARCHITECTURE  139 

the  ability  of  the  architect  and  his  workmen.  Between  the  pronaos 
and  the  cella  were  stairs  leading  upward.  Within  the  cella  two 
rows  of  Doric  columns,  each  with  a  superposed  row  of  smaller 
columns,  also  Doric,  supported  the  roof.  Many  of  these  upper 
columns  are  still  in  situ,  a  fact  which  makes  this  temple  especially 
important,  for  it  is  the  only  Doric  temple  which  still  gives  us  an 
idea  of  the  original  effect  of  the  interior  (see  Fig.  83).  The  col- 
umns of  the  upper  order  have  sixteen  channels,  those  of  the  lower 
order  twenty,  and  those  of  the  outside  order  twenty-four. 

On  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  the  temple  at  Assos  is  the  only  im- 
portant early  Doric  temple.     It  had  six  columns  at  front  and  back, 
thirteen  on  each  side,  a  pronaos  in  antis,  no  opisthodo- 
mus,  and  no  supports  within  the  cella.     This  is  the 
only  known  Doric  temple  the  architrave  of  which  was  decorated 
with  reliefs. 

In  Greece  proper  were  many  early  Doric  temples,  but  the  exist- 
ing remains  of  most  of  them  are  unsatisfactory.  The  Heraeum  at 
Olympia  has  already  been  briefly  discussed,  and  men-  Greece 
tion  has  been  made  of  the  temple  at  Thermon,  with  its  proper 
single  row  of  interior  supports.  The  temple  of  Apollo  at  Corinth, 
which  can  hardly  have  been  built  later  than  the  first  half  of  the 
sixth  century,  was  the  oldest  known  temple  in  Greece  before  the 
discovery  of  the  Heraeum.  Its  heavy  columns,  with  very  noticeable 
diminution  and  entasis  and  wide,  flaring  capitals,  proclaim  its  early 
date.  In  plan  it  seems  to  have  had  no  peculiarities.  On  the  Acrop- 
olis at  Athens  were  several  early  Doric  temples,  the  largest  of  which 
was  the  temple  of  Athena,  too  Attic  feet  (32.8  m.)  in  length.  This 
had  originally  no  peristyle,  but  at  each  end  two  columns  in  antis. 
Behind  the  large  cella  it  contained  three  rooms,  which  may  have 
served  as  a  treasury,  or  may  have  been  sacred  to  Poseidon- 
Erechtheus.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century,  probably 
under  Pisistratus  or  his  sons,  a  peristyle  was  added  to  the  tem- 
ple, which  was  also  adorned  with  sculptures  of  Parian  marble. 
So  many  fragments  of  this  temple  have  been  found  that  its  plan 
and  elevation  are  known  in  almost  all  details.  The  same  is  true 


i4o  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  several  smaller  temples  which  once  stood  on  the  Acropolis,  but 
were  destroyed  by  the  Persians  in  480  and  479  B.C.  The  com- 
parative elegance  of  the  peristyle  of  the  temple  of  Athena  shows 
the  progress  of  Doric  architecture  at  Athens  in  the  sixth  century. 
The  temple  of  Aphaia,  at  Aegina,  which  was  built  not  far  from 
480  B.C.,  is  better  preserved  than  any  of  the  earlier  temples  of 
Greece  proper.  It  had  six  columns  on  the  ends  and  thirteen  on 
the  sides,  and  in  other  respects  its  plan  was  normal.  In  its 
architectural  details,  as  in  its  date,  it  stands  between  the  old  temple 
of  Athena  at  Athens  and  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia. 

Olympia,  the  scene  of  the  Olympic  games  in  which  representa- 
tives from  all  parts  of  the  Greek  world  took  part,  was  one  of  the 
most  important  centres  of  Hellenic  life,  and  the  temple 
of  Zeus,  in  the  Aids,  or  sacred  enclosure  (Fig.  no), 
was,  though  far  less  large  than  some  of  the  great  temples  of  Sicily, 
the  most  important  and  famous  of  early  Doric  temples.  The  build- 
ing was  begun  before  460  and  finished  not  long  after  457  B.C.  It 
was  a  peripteral  temple  with  six  columns  at  the  ends  and  thirteen 
on  the  sides,  with  pronaos  and  opisthodomus,  both  in  antis.  A 
ramp  at  the  eastern  end  provided  an  easy  and  dignified  approach 
to  the  entrance.  The  temple  measured,  on  the  top  step,  64.12  m. 
by  27.60  m.  (210  ft.  4^  in.  by  90  ft.  6f  in.),  and  the  total  height 
of  the  order,  including  steps  and  cornice,  was  16  m.  (52  ft.  6  in.). 
The  material  is  a  coarse  stone,  which  was  originally  covered  with 
white  stucco.  The  tiles  of  the  roof,  the  pediment  groups,  and  the 
sculptured  metopes  in  the  pronaos  and  the  opisthodomus  were  of 
marble;  the  outer  metopes  were  not  decorated.  A  wide  door 
(4.75  m.  or  15  ft.  7  in.)  led  into  the  cella,  which  measured 
27.84  m.  by  8.35  m.  (91  ft.  4  in.  by  27  ft.  i^-  in.)  and  had  three 
aisles.  Galleries  over  the  side  aisles  were  supported  by  columns, 
and  the  roof  beams  were  supported,  as  at  Paestum,  by  means 
of  a  second  order.  All  the  columns  were  Doric.  The  steps  to 
the  galleries  were  near  the  entrance.  The  central  aisle  was 
divided  into  three  nearly  equal  parts.  The  part  nearest  the  door 
seems  to  have  been  open  to  the  public ;  the  second  part  was  raised 


ARCHITECTURE 


141 


BED    OF  THE   CLADEUS 


142  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

about  o.io  m.  (4  in.)  and  paved  with  a  different  material;  the 
western  part  was  occupied  by  a  pedestal  measuring  10  in.  by  6.64  m. 
(32  ft.  gf  in.  by  21  ft.  8|  in.)  for  the  colossal  chryselephantine 
statue  of  Zeus  by  Phidias.  These  last  two  thirds  were  shut  off  from 
the  rest  of  the  cella  by  stone  screens  or  barriers  adorned  with 
paintings,  but  a  passage  was  left  from  one  aisle  to  the  other  behind 
the  statue.  The  ceiling  of  the  cella,  as  well  as  that  of  the  peri- 
style, was  of  wood. 

The  precinct  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  (Fig.  in)  was  second  in  im- 
portance only  to  the  Altis  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  An  early  temple  of 
Apollo  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  548  B.C.  and  a  new 
one  was  erected  at  the  expense  of  the  Alcmeonidae  of 
Athens.  This  was  built  of  poros  stone,  but  its  front  was  of  Parian 
marble.  Little  is  known  of  the  internal  arrangements  of  this  tem- 
ple or  of  its  predecessor,  for  the  remains  now  existing  belong 
almost  entirely  to  a  temple  finished  about  340-330  B.C.  Within 
each  of  the  successive  temples  was  apparently  a  separate  room, 
devoted  to  the  use  of  the  oracle  ;  in  this  was  the  tripod,  seated  on 
which  the  priestess  received  the  prophetic  inspiration.  The  sacred 
precinct  is  situated  on  a  series  of  artificial  terraces  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  Mt.  Parnassus.  The  temple  occupies  the  central  posi- 
tion, and  immediately  to  the  north,  on  higher  ground,  is  the  theatre. 
The  approach  to  the  temple  terrace  is  from  the  south,  by  a 
winding  Sacred  Way,  which  was  bordered  by  votive  monuments, 
statues,  exedrae  and  "treasuries." 

In  comparison  with  the  great  number  of  early  Doric  temples  in 
the  western  colonies  and  in  Greece  proper,  the  number  of  early 
Early  Ionic  Ionic  temples,  most  of  which  are  in  Asia  Minor,  is 
temples  small.  At  Neandria,  a  town  in  the  Troad,  are  the 
remains  of  an  early  temple,  which  had  columns  with  capitals  of 
the  so-called  Aeolic  type  and  the  interior  of  which  was,  like  that 
of  the  early  temple  at  Locri,  divided  by  a  single  row  of  supports. 
Of  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  one  of  the  most  important 
Ionic  structures  of  the  sixth  century,  unfortunately  but  few  frag- 
ments remain.  The  decoration  of  the  lowest  drum  of  some  of 


ARCHITECTURE 


ft 


FIG.  in.  —  The  precinct  of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 
(Luckenbach,  Olympia.  und  Delphi,  p.  45.) 


i44  GREEK.   ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  columns  with  figures  in  relief  (Fig.  157)  was  a  unique  feature 
of  this  building.1  After  this  temple  was  burned  in  356  B.C.,  a  new 
one  was  built  on  a  magnificent  scale  by  the  architect  Deinocra- 
tes,  in  which  the  same  system  of  decoration  was  again  employed 
(Fig.  195).  The  sanctuary  of  Apollo  at  Naucratis  in  Egypt  and  the 
temple  at  Locri  in  southern  Italy  were  also  early  Ionic  buildings, 
but  at  present  little  is  known  of  them.  Two  large  Ionic  capitals 
of  poros  stone,  found  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  show  that  the 
Ionic  style  was  known  in  Attica  at  an  early  date,  though  the  origi- 
nal position  for  which  these  particular  capitals  were  intended  is 
not  yet  determined. 

Even  before  the  Persian  invasions,  Athens  had  been  an  impor- 
tant city  and,  under  the  rule  of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons,  a  centre 
of  literary  and  artistic  production.  But  the  increased 
power  and  prestige  which  followed  the  victories  at 
Marathon  and  Salamis  and  the  formation  of  the  Delian  Confed- 
eracy made  Athens  the  most  conspicuous  and  most  cosmopolitan 
city  of  the  Hellenic  world.  It  is  not  strange  that  both  the  Doric 
and  the  Ionic  styles  found  there  their  most  perfect  expression.  In 
480  and  479  B.C.  the  Persians  destroyed  the  buildings  on  the  Acropo- 
lis, and  it  was  natural  that  the  Athenians  should  plan  to  rebuild  on 
a  scale  corresponding  with  the  increased  importance  of  their  city. 
Apparently,  however,  little  was  done  at  first,  possibly  because 
funds  were  needed  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  but  soon  after 
the  treasury  of  the  Confederacy  was  removed  from  Delos  to 
Athens  glorious  works  of  architecture  began  to  rise,  while  the 
greatest  Greek  sculptors  and  painters  vied  with  each  other  in 
decorating  the  buildings  of  the  imperial  city.  The  beginnings 
of  the  new  Athens  were  doubtless  made  while  Cimon  was  at  the 
head  of  affairs,  but  the  work  was  performed  under  Pericles,  who 
is  said  to  have  employed  Phidias  as  general  superintendent. 

1  Excavations  carried  on  in  1904  and  1905  by  Mr.  D.  G.  Hogarth  disclosed 
the  remains  of  a  still  earlier  structure.  In  the  centre  was  a  rectangular  base, 
probably  for  the  sacred  image.  Many  small  votive  objects  of  various  materials 
were  found  near  this  base.  (Hogarth,  Excavations  at  EpAesus,  London,  1908.) 


ARCHITECTURE 


ACROPOLIS  AT  ATHENS 


FIG.  112.  —  The  Acropolis  at  Athens.     (Curtius,  Stadtgesckichte  v.  Athen,  PI.  v.) 

The  Acropolis  (Fig.  112)  was  the  chief  scene  of  action.  Here 
was  the  Parthenon,1  in  size,  plan,  material,  care  in  construction, 
nobility  of  sculptures,  and  beauty  of  proportion  un-  The  Par- 
equalled  by  any  Greek  temple  (Figs.  113  and  114).  thenon 
The  architects  were  Ictinus  and  Callic'-ates,  and  the  temple,  begun 
in  447  B.C.,  was  dedicated  in  438,  though  some  details  were  still 
unfinished  in  432.  All  parts  above  the  poros  foundations  were  of 
Pentelic  marble.  It  was  peripteral,  with  eight  columns  at  the  front 
and  seventeen  at  the  side.  The  pronaos  and  opisthodomus  had 
each  six  columns  behind  the  columns  of  the  peristyle  and  were 
enclosed  with  metal  gratings  for  the  protection  of  offerings  de- 

1  Even  before  the  sack  by  the  Persians,  a  temple  was  begun  on  the  same 
site,  the  highest  point  of  the  Acropolis,  but  never  finished.  Its  foundations, 
still  visible,  were  longer  than  those  of  the  Parthenon,  but  slightly  less  wide. 

GREEK    AKCH. — IO 


146 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


posited  within.  The  temple  measured  69.50  m.  by  30.86  m 
(228.026  ft.  by  101.254  ft.)  on  the  upper  step,  the  height  of  the 
columns  was  10.42  m.  (34.188  ft.),  and  the  total  height  from  the 
ground  to  the  ridgepole  about  20  m.  (65  ft.).  The  slender  pro- 
portions of  the  columns  (their  height  is  5^  times  their  lower  di- 
ameter) and  the  use  of  the  bead  and  reel  in  the  capitals  of  the 
antae  and  just  above  the  triglyphs  and  metopes  betray,  perhaps, 
the  influence  of  the  Ionic  order.  The  pediments  were  filled  with 
groups  of  sculpture,  reliefs  filled  all  the  metopes,  and  round  the 


025      8    10    ii      is      ia   »  it     a  tr     so  Met. 

FIG.  113.—  Plan  of  the  Parthenon.     (Dorpfeld,  Ath.  MUt.  VI.,  PI.  12.) 

top  of  the  wall  of  the  cella,  on  the  outside,  ran  a  continuous  (Ionic) 
frieze  about  i  m.  (39.95  in.)  high  covered  with  reliefs  (see  p.  239). 
In  its  decoration  the  Parthenon  was  richer  and  more  splendid 
than  any  other  Doric  temple.  The  interior  consisted  of  two 
rooms.  The  principal  cella,  at  the  east,  measured  19.19  m.  by 
29.90  m.  (63.01  ft.  by  98.145  ft.)  and  was  known  as  the  Heka- 
tompedos,  from  the  fact  that  its  length  was  100  Attic  feet.  It 
had  a  broad  nave  and  two  aisles.  The  supports  of  the  roof  were 
probably  two-storied  colonnades  of  the  Doric  order,  one  above 
the  other ;  certainly  the  lower  order  was  Doric,  for  traces  of  the 
fluting  are  still  visible  on  the  pavement.  Near  the  western  end. 


ARCHITECTURE 


147 


opposite  the  door,  stood  the  famous  chryselephantine  statue  of 
Athena  by  Phidias,  behind  which  was  a  colonnade  in  two  stories, 
like  those  at  the  sides.  The  western  room,  to  which  the  name 
Parthenon  was  at  first  confined,  was  probably  a  treasury,  as  it 
could  be  entered  only  from  the  west.  It  was  only  13.37  m. 
(43.867  ft.)  deep,  and  its  width  was  the  same  as  that  of  the 


FlG.  114.  —  The  Parthenon.     (Photograph.) 

Hekatompedos.  The  ceiling  was  carried  by  four  interior  sup- 
ports, not  of  the  Doric  order,  if  one  may  judge  by  the  traces  they 
have  left  on  the  pavement. 

The  so-called  Theseum  (perhaps  really  a  temple  of  Hephaes- 
tus) does  not  stand  upon  the  Acropolis,  but  on  a  slight  rise  of 
ground  a  short  distance  to  the  northwest.     It  is  of         The 
about  the  same  date  as  the  Parthenon,  but  is  much  "Theseum" 
smaller  and  less  elaborate  in  its  constructional  details  and  its 


148 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


decoration.  In  plan  it  is  a  strictly  regular  peristyle  temple,  with 
six  columns  at  the  ends,  thirteen  on  the  sides,  and  two  between 
the  antae  of  the  pronaos  and  opisthodomus.  Its  chief  peculi- 
arity, apart  from  the  fact  that  it  is  raised  upon  only  two  steps, 
not  three,  is  the  introduction  of  continuous  friezes  across  the 
pronaos  and  the  opisthodomus.  The  sculptures  of  the  "  Theseum  " 
are  described  elsewhere  (see  p.  245  f.).  To  the  student  of  archi- 
tecture the  building  is  important  because  its  exterior  columns,  its 
walls,  and  entablature  are  all  in  place,  and  it  is  the  only  Greek  tem- 
ple which  still  preserves  the  essential  features  of  its  original  appear- 
ance (Fig.  75). 

The  Ionic  style 
of  Attica  reaches 
its  per-  TheErech- 
fection  theum 
in  the  Erechtheum 
(Fig.  115).  This 
temple,  which  lies 
about  200  ft.  north 
of  the  Parthenon, 
was  begun  not  far 
from  420  B.C.,  and 
was  practically  fin- 
ished in  409.  The 


FIG.  115. — The  Erechtheum.    Plan.     (Drawing  by 
G.  P.  S.) 


main  building  measures  22  m.  by  11.30  m.  (72.18  ft.  by  37.07 
ft.).  At  the  eastern  end  was  a  portico  with  six  Ionic  columns  22  ft. 
high.  In  the  wall  behind  were  two  narrow  windows,  one  at  each 
side  of  the  door  that  led  into  the  cella  of  Athena,  which  had  a  flat 
coffered  ceiling  of  wood  with  painted  decoration.  On  the  north 
side  a  flight  of  outside  steps  led  down  about  9  ft.  from  the  level 
of  the  eastern  front  to  that  of  the  northern  and  western  entrances. 
The  beautiful  north  porch,  with  four  columns,  somewhat  taller  than 
those  of  the  eastern  portico,  on  its  front  and  two  on  its  sides,  leads, 
through  a  door  of  wonderful  beauty  (Fig.  116),  into  the  western 
cella,  the  cella  of  Poseidon-Erechtheus.  The  ceiling  of  the  north 


ARCHITECTURE 


149 


porch  was  composed  of  marble  beams  20  ft.  long,  which  supported 
marble  coffers,  each  of  which  had  a  gilded  rosette  in  the  centre. 
An  opening  in  the  floor  discloses  some  fissures  in  the  rock,  which 
were  doubtless  regarded  as  the  marks  made  by  the  trident  of 
Poseidon  when  he  contended  with  Athena  for  the  possession  of 
Attica.  The  porch  overlaps  the  western  end  of  the  temple,  and 


NORTH  PORTICO 
SECTION    LOOKING  SOUTH 


FIG.  116.  —  The  Erechtheum.     North  portico.     (Drawing  by  G.  P.  S.) 

so  gave  access  through  a  small  doorway  to  a  precinct  called  the 
Pandroseum,  where  grew  the  sacred  olive  tree. .  From  the  Pan- 
droseum  the  western  cella  was  entered  by  a  simple  doorway 
pierced  in  a  wall  about  10  ft.  high.  On  this  wall  rose  four  col- 
umns, half  engaged  for  about  a  third  of  their  height  (Fig.  117). 
The  three  windows  seen  in  most  restorations  are  of  Roman  date. 
Originally  the  southern  intercolumniation  was  probably  filled  by 
some  part  of  the  tomb  of  Cecrops,  which  lay  partially  under  the 


i5o  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

southwest  corner  of  the  Erechtheum,  and  the  four  others  were 
filled  with  wooden  grilles.  At  the  western  end  of  the  south  side 
of  the  building,  and  on  the  same  level  as  the  eastern  front,  was 
a  third  portico.  Here  maidens  (Caryatides),  standing  on  a 
parapet  6  ft.  high,  carry  the  entablature,  which  consists  merely 
of  architrave  and  cornice,  without  a  frieze,  as  if  to  lighten  the  load 
borne  by  the  Caryatides.  Through  this  porch  a  small  entrance, 
evidently  not  intended  for  general  use,  led  into  the  western  cella. 


FIG.  117.  —  The  Erechtheum.    Western  elevation.     (Drawing  by  G.  P.  S.) 

A  corridor;  beneath  which  was  a  tank,  connected  the  north  porch 
and  the  porch  of  the  maidens  ;  and  the  rest  of  the  cella  was  prob- 
ably divided  by  walls  about  10  ft.  high  into  two  rooms,  each  of 
which  was  connected  with  the  corridor  by  a  double  door  of  marble 
with  inlaid  decoration.  No  stairs  and  no  door  connected  the 
eastern  with  the  western  cella.  A  frieze  of  dark  limestone,  deco- 
rated with  a  continuous  band  of  white  marble  figures,  ran  round 
the  outside  of  the  entire  building  (see  p.  248) .  In  novelty  of 
plan,  in  variety  and  beauty  of  architectural  decoration,  the  Erech- 
theum is  unsurpassed,  and  it  is  justly  regarded  as  the  most  charm- 
ing monument  of  Greek  architecture. 


ARCHITECTURE  151 

At  Bassae,  in  Arcadia,  on  a  lonely  rocky  height,  is  an  interesting 
temple,  dedicated  to  Apollo  Epicurius  and  said  to  be  the  work  of 
Ictinus,  the  architect  of  the  Parthenon.     It  forms  an       Bassae 
exception  to  the  general  rule,  for  its  greatest  length  is    (Phigaleia) 
from  north  to  south,  and  its  entrance  is  at  the  northern  end.1     It 
was  a  Doric  peripteral  temple,  with  six  columns  on  the  front  and 
fifteen   on  the  side,  and 
with  pronaos  and  opistho- 
domus  in  antis  (Fig.  1 18). 
Within  were  a  small  room, 
probably  for  the  cult  statue, 
with    a    special    entrance 

from  the  east,  and  a  large       FlG-  "8.  — Plan  of  temple  at  Bassae.      (Borr- 

mann,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  I,  Fig.  112.) 

room,  from  each  side  wall 

of  which  (as.  had  been  the  case  in  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia ;  see 
p.  135)  five  short  walls  projected,  which  ended  in  engaged  Ionic 
three-quarter  columns.  The  capitals  of  these  columns  had  curious 
volutes,  which  projected  diagonally  at  the  corners.  In  the  entab- 
lature above  these  columns  was  a  frieze  decorated  with  vigorous 
and  animated  reliefs  (see  p.  249).  Between  the  two  rooms  and 
lining  with  the  last  two  Ionic  columns  stood  a  Corinthian  column, 
perhaps  the  earliest  known  example  of  this  order.  The  temple  at 
Bassae  was  the  first  in  which  the  three  orders  were  combined.2 

The  beginning  of  a  new  period,  that  of  Alexander  the  Great,  is 
marked  by  the  erection  of  three  important  Ionic  temples  in  Asia 
Minor ;  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  the  temple 
of  Didymaean  Apollo  near  Miletus,  and  the  temple  of 
Artemis  Leucophryene  at  Magnesia.     The  colossal  temple  of  Arte- 

1  This  may  be  explained  on  the  assumption  that  the  larger  room  was  a  sort 
of  courtyard,  open  to  the  sky,  and  that  the  smaller  room  was  the  real  temple, 
which  thus  had  its  entrance  at  the  east  (see  Fig.  1 18). 

2  The  temple  of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegea,  probably  erected  early  in  the  fourth 
century,  since  Scopas  is  said  to  have  been  the  architect,  had  Doric  columns 
in  the  peristyle,    Ionic   columns   in   the   pronaos,   and  Corinthian  columns 
within  the  cella. 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


mis  at  Ephesus,  begun  soon  after  the  old  temple  was  burned  in 
356  B.C.,  had  two  rows  of  columns  on  each  side,1  twenty  in  a  row, 
and  two  rows  of  eight  columns  each  on  the  front.  .  Its  size,  reck- 
oned from  the  axes  of  the  corner  columns,  was  104.48  m.  by 
48.55  m.  (nearly  343  ft.  by  160  ft.).  It  had  a  pronaos  and  an  opis- 
thodomus,  both  in  an/is,  and  each  of  these  was  separated  by  an 
enclosed  room  from  the  cella  proper,  which  was  divided  into  three 
aisles.  The  exterior  columns  were  18  m.  (about  59  ft.)  high,  and 
the  lowest  drums  of  some  of  them  were  decorated  with  reliefs  (Fig. 
195).  Square  pedestals,  also  decorated  with  reliefs,  supported 
the  front  row  of  columns,  and  behind  them  the  podium  on  which 
the  cella  rested  rose  in  nine  steps. 

The  temple  of  Didymaean  Apollo,  at  Didyma  or  Branchidae, 

near  Miletus,  was  also  dipteral.     It  had  10  columns  on  the  front 

and    21    on    the   side   and   measured   48.55    m.    by 

107.75  m-  (nearly  160  ft.  by  353   ft.)    between    the 

axes  of  the  corner  columns.     It  had  a  pronaos  but  no  opisthodo- 

mus,  and  there  was  here  also  a  small  room  before  and  behind  the 

cella.  According 
to  Strabo,  the  in- 
terior had  no  roof. 
The  temple  was 
evidently  never  fin- 
ished, and  certain- 
ly the  work  was 
continued  for  a 
long  time.  Per- 
haps a  roof  was 


FlG.  119.  —  Pilaster  capital.     Didyma.     (Borrmann, 
Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  I,  Fig.  94.) 


intended  but  never  built.  The  sculptured  bases  and  capitals  of 
some  of  the  columns  are  rich  and  unusual,  and  the  capitals  of  the 
pilasters  which  enlivened  the  interior  wall  of  the  cella  and  lined 
with  the  outside  columns  are  exceedingly  interesting  (Fig.  119). 

1  Such  a  temple,  with  double  peristyle,  is  called  dipteral  (Shrrepos).  If 
there  is  only  one  row  of  columns,  but  that  is  set  two  intercolumniations  from 
the  wall  of  the  cella,  the  temple  is  called  pseudodipteral  (^ei/SoS/ 


ARCHITECTURE 


153 


The  Artemisium  at  Magnesia  was  reconstructed  about  200  B.C. 
by  the  famous  architect  Hermogenes,  who  removed  the  inner  row 
of  columns  which  encircled  the  cella  and  substituted 
engaged  columns,  along  the  cella  wall,  thus  making  a 
dipteral  temple  pseudodipteral.     In  beauty  of  proportions,    but 
not  in  size,  this  temple  surpassed  the  other  two.     Its  details,  how- 
ever, were  weak  when  com- 
pared with  work  of  the  best 
period    (Fig.    120).     The 
frieze  was  decorated  with 
lively,  though  rather  coarse, 
reliefs  representing  the  bat- 
tle of  Greeks  and  Amazons. 

In  the  famous  Serapeum 
at  Alexandria,  erected  under 

The  Sera-  the  Ptolemies, 
peum  a  temple  was 
combined  with  a  library. 
It  stood  upon  a  great  ter- 
race approached  by  more 
than  100  steps.  A  domed 
gateway  (propylaeum)  led 
into  a  courtyard,  which  had 
67  columns  on  its  longer, 
and  1 6  on  its  shorter  sides. 
In  the  courtyard  was  a 
basin  of  water  (probably  a 
fountain)  for  religious  pur- 
poses. The  library  was  con- 
nected with  the  courtyard.  Beneath  the  terrace  were  vaulted 
rooms,  in  which  the  sacred  mysteries  were  performed.  Greek 
and  oriental  elements  were  combined  in  this  complex  structure, 
which  served  in  some  respects  as  a  model  for  the  great  terraced 
temples  of  late  Greek  and  Roman  times,  such  as  those  at  Perga- 
mon,  Baalbek,  and  Praeneste. 


FIG.  120. —  Entablature  and  sima.  Mag- 
nesia. (Humann,  Kohte,  and  Watzinger, 
Magnesia,  PI.  5.) 


154  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Within  the  temple  enclosures  at  Olympia  (Fig.  no)  and  Delphi 
(Fig.  in)  were  so-called  treasure  houses  of  modest  dimensions 

erected  by  various  individuals  and  cities.     In   these 
Treasuries  .  . 

were    stored   votive    offerings,    weapons,   and   other 

things  of  value.  The  buildings  probably  served  also  as  gathering 
places  for  the  people  who  came  from  the  cities  by  which  they 
were  erected.  The  treasuries  at  Olympia  were  arranged  in  line 
on  a  conspicuous  terrace  ;  they  were  all  of  Doric  style,  and  all 
but  one  had  fronts  in  antis.  In  the  treasury  of  Gela  the  stone 
cornice  was  encased  in  a  sheathing  of  terracotta,  fastened  on  with 
nails  (Fig.  79).  As  such  terracotta  sheathing  has  been  found  at 
Gela,  Selinus,  and  Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  and  at  Metapontum,  Locri, 
and  many  Etruscan  sites,  its  use  in  the  treasury  of  the  Geloans  at 
Olympia  may  be  regarded  as  an  importation  into  Greece  of  a 
Sicilian  custom.  At  Delphi  the  treasury  of  the  Cnidians  (Fig.  103), 
which  dates  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  is  one  of  the  earli- 
est examples  of  Ionic  architecture  in  Greece  proper.  The  qualities 
of  Ionic  art  are  clearly  marked  in  the  cornice,  mouldings,  and  deco- 
ration. The  frieze  is  adorned  with  a  continuous  band  of  reliefs 
(Fig.  159).  At  the  front,  two  Caryatides  on  high  pedestals  stand 
between  the  antae  in  place  of  columns,  and  the  entrance  door  has 
a  treatment  similar  to  that  of  the  north  door  of  the  Erechtheum. 

A  further  step  in  the  progress  of  Greek  architecture  was  the 
combination  of  a  round  building  with  a  colonnade.  Unfortunately 
the  purpose  of  these  round  buildings  is  not  very  clear.  The  Philip- 
peum  at  Olympia,  built  by  Philip  II  in  commemoration  of  the 
battle  of  Chaeronea  (338  B.C.),  contained  gold  and  ivory  statues 
of  the  Macedonian  royal  family.  On  the  outside  was  a  circular 
colonnade  of  eighteen  Ionic  columns,  and  in  the  interior,  which 
was  lighted  by  windows,  were  nine  engaged  Corinthian  columns 
on  a  high  continuous  base.  The  round  building  within  the  sacred 
precinct  of  Asclepius,  at  Epidaurus  (Fig.  121),  was  begun  earlier, 
Round  but  not  finished  until  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 

buildings  Polyclitus  the  younger  is  said  to  have  been  the  archi- 
tect. It  was,  chiefly  on  account  of  its  rich  and  luxuriant  orna- 


ARCHITECTURE 


155 


FIG.  121.  —  Round  building  at  Epi- 
daurus.  (Borrmann,  Geschichte 
der  Baukunst,  I,  Fig.  115.) 


mentation,  one  of  the  most  striking  buildings  of  classical  times. 
The  foundations  consist  of  concentric  rings,  on  which  rested  the 
walls,  columns,  and  pavement.  The  building,  14.50  m.  (47.5  7  ft.)  in 
diameter,  was  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  of  26  late  Doric  col- 
umns ;  in  the  middle  of  each  metope 
was  a  large  rosette ;  and  within  the 
building  was  a  second  ring  of  col- 
umns, here  Corinthian.  Both  colon- 
nades had  marble  coffered  ceilings 
extending  to  tht  cella  wall.  The 
entablature  of  the  inner  Corinthian 
order  consisted  of  an  Ionic  archi- 
trave, a  frieze  with  a  curved  profile, 
and  a  cornice  which  harmonized 
well  with  the  marble  ceiling  toward 
the  wall  and  the  wooden  ceiling  over  the  centre  of  the  cella.  The 
interior  was  adorned  with  paintings  by  Pausias.  The  round  building 
erected  at  Samothrace  by  Arsinoe  before  her  marriage  with  Ptolemy 
II  was  of  somewhat  different  character.  It  was  a  two-storied  struc- 
ture, measuring  19  m.  (62.34  ft.)  in  diameter.  The  lower  part  had 
no  decoration  except  the  door  and  its  casing;  the  upper  part 
had  44  pilasters  outside  and  Corinthian  half  columns  inside. 
The  roof  seems  to  have  been  of  conical  form.  In  Roman  times 
round  buildings  with  exterior  colonnades  were  not  uncommon. 

The  sacred  precinct  that  surrounded  the  temple  was  generally 
entered  through  monumental  gateways  called  propylaea,  similar 
to  the  entrances  of  Mycenaean  palaces.  They  con- 
sisted of  a  portico  facing  the  approach  and  a  second 
portico  facing  the  temple  precinct.  The  passages  between  these 
porticoes  could  be  closed  by  swinging  doors  or  grilles.  There  was 
great  freedom  in  the  choice  of  supports,  which  might  be  square, 
octagonal,  or  round. 

The  most  imposing  of  these  structures  was  that  at  Athens  (Fig. 
122),  where,  situated  at  the  west  end  of  the  Acropolis,  it  formed 
the  monumental  entrance  to  the  sacred  precinct.  It  was  designed 


Propylaea 


156 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


by  the  architect  Mnesicles  and  erected  during  the  years  437-432 
B.C.,  upon  sloping,  rocky  ground,  where  a  simpler  gateway  had 
stood  in  earlier  times.  The  western  front  of  the  main  building 
consisted  of  a  Doric  portico,  with  columns  8.53  m.  to  8.57  m.  (28 
ft.)  high,  surmounted  by  a  pediment.  At  each  side  a  wing  with 
Doric  columns  5.776  m.  (19  ft.)  high  projected  toward  the  west. 
These  were  intended  to  be  symmetrical,  but  the  southern  wing 
was  not  finished  in  accordance  with  the  original  plan.  The  southern 


FlG.  122.  —  Plan  of  Propylaea.    Athens.    (J.  E.  Harrison,  Mythology  and 
Monuments  of  Athens,  p.  352.) 

wall  of  the  northern  wing  is  pierced  by  a  door  and  two  windows. 
This  wing  is  called  the  picture  gallery,  or  Pinakotheke,  because 
Pausanias  says  it  contained  paintings.  The  nature  of  the  walls 
renders  the  supposition  that  they  were  covered  with  mural  paint- 
ings inadmissible.  The  eastern  facade  had  also  a  Doric  hexastyle 
portico  and  a  pediment.  To  the  right  and  left  of  this,  large  open 
porticoes  had  originally  been  designed,  but  the  plan  was  never 
carried  out.  The  interior  of  the  main  building  was  18.12  m. 
(59.45  ft.)  wide,  and  had  three  aisles,  the  middle  one  of  which 
was  higher  than  the  others.  Five  passages  led  into  the  sacred 


ARCHITECTURE 


'57 


precinct,  the  central  one  of  which,  broader  than  the  rest,  had  no 
steps,  in  order  that  it  might  be  used  for  vehicles,  sacrificial  animals, 
and  processions  (Fig.  123).  The  other  passageways  had  steps 
before  the  doors  in  the  wall  that  separated  the  eastern  and  the 
western  porticoes.  The  entrances  were  closed  by  massive  gates. 
The  interior  supports,  along  the  central  passage,  are  Ionic  col- 
umns 10.25  m.  (33^  ft.)  high,  the  architraves  above  which  rested 
upon  the  architraves  of  the  western  fagade  and  lined  with  those 


FlG.  123. —  Propylaea.     Athens.    Section.     (D'Espouy,  Fragments 
d' architecture  antique,  PI.  2.) 

of  the  eastern  front.  The  use  of  the  Ionic  and  Doric  orders 
together  is  so  managed  as  to  seem  simple  and  natural.  The  ceil- 
ings of  the  main  building  were,  like  the  walls,  columns,  and  entab- 
latures, of  Pentelic  marble  throughout.  They  were  of  wide  span, 
for  the  distance  between  the  interior  columns,  from  north  to  south, 
was  5.44  m.  (17.84  ft),  the  free  span  in  the  aisles  5.42  m.  (17.78 
ft),  and  that  in  the  eastern  portico  5. 44  m.  (17.84  ft.). 

In  the  propylaea  at  Eleusis,  the  central  part  of  the  propylaea  at 
Athens  was  closely  copied.  At  Priene  the  gateway  of  the  pre- 
cinct of  Athena  had  a  simple  facade  with  four  columns  facing  out 


158  .  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

ward,  and  on  the  side  toward  the  precinct  a  small  square  hall,  and 
again  a  facade  with  four  columns.  At  Samothrace  the  propylaea 
had  an  ample  facade  with  six  columns  raised  upon  a  high  podium 
in  which  was  an  arched  passage  for  a  stream.  So  the  details  of 
propylaea  varied  with  circumstances,  but  their  general  form  was 
that  of  a  hallway  with  a  facade  like  that  of  a  temple  at  each  end. 

Civic  ARCHITECTURE 

Only  in  comparatively  recent  years  have  excavations  at  Olym- 
pia,  Pergamon,  Eleusis,  Megalopolis,  Ephesus,  Miletus,  Priene, 
Delphi,  Epidaurus,  Delos,  and  other  places  made  known  the  typi- 
cal forms  of  Greek  public  buildings. 

The  Bouleuterion,  or  council  house,  at  Olympia  (Fig.  no)  ex- 
hibits in  plan  a  relatively  early  arrangement.  It  consists  of  a 
Bouleuterion  square  central  space  and  two  long  wings,  each  termi- 
at  Olympia  nated  by  an  apse,  a  form  which  seldom  occurs  in  Greek 
architecture.  One  of  these  apses  is  semicircular,  the  other  semi- 
elliptical.  The  square  central  room  seems  to  have  been  used  by 
the  bou!6  or  council,  and  probably  contained  the  statue  of  Zeus 
Horkios,  the  protector  of  oaths,  before  which  the  athletes  swore 
that  they  had  undergone  the  prescribed  ten  months'  course  of 
training,  and  would  obey  the  regulations  of  the  games.  Each  of 
the  side  buildings  was  divided  into  two  aisles  by  a  row  of  columns 
in  the  middle,  representing  in  this  respect  the  same  stage  of  de- 
velopment as  the  two-aisled  temples,  and  the  apses  were  sepa- 
rated from  the  principal  rooms  by  walls  with  strong  doors.  The 
principal  rooms  were  probably  offices  and  the  apses  treasuries  or 
archives.  Each  side  building  had  at  the  entrance  three  Doric  col- 
umns between  antae,  and  the  Doric  triglyph  decoration  was  carried 
along  the  side  walls  and  round  the  apses.  There  were  only  five 
guttae  on  the  regulae  instead  of  the  usual  six.  A  long  Ionic  por- 
tico formed  a  common  front  for  the  three  parts  of  the  Bouleuterion. 

At  Eleusis  was  a  large  Telesterion,  or  hall,  in  which  the  Eleusin- 
ian  mysteries  were  performed  (Fig.  124).  It  occupied  the  site  of 


ARCHITECTURE 


159 


two  earlier  buildings,  the  later  of  which  was  destroyed  by  the 
Persians.     Ictinus,    the   architect   of  the   Parthenon,    began   the 
work,  but  it  was  not  completed  until  about  312  B.C.,   Telesterion 
under  the  architect  Philon.      The  building  was  also    atEleusis 
restored  in  Roman  times.     The  mysteries  were  discontinued  in 
396  A.D.,   when  the   Goths,  under 
Alaric,  are  said  to  have  destroyed 
the  building.     The  portico  of  Philon, 
which  formed  the  front  of  the  build- 
ing, had  twelve  Doric  columns,  with 
two  others  behind  those  at  the  cor- 
ners, and  was  55.91  m.  (183.44  ft.) 
long  and  11.50  m.  (37.73  ft.)  deep. 
Two  entrances  led  from  the  portico 
into  the  interior,  a  room  54.15  m. 
(178  ft.)  long  and   51.80  m.  (170 
ft.)  wide,  which  resembled  an  Egyp- 
tian hypostyle  hall,  as  its  ceiling  was 
supported  by  forty-two  columns  dis- 
posed in  six  rows.    Around  the  walls 
ran  eight  tiers  of  seats,  partly  cut  in 
the  living  rock.      There  were  also  side  entrances. 


FIG.  124.  —  Telesterion  at  Eleusis. 
(Borrmann,  Geschichte  der 
Baukunst,  I,  Fig.  120.) 


Behind  the 

hall  and  approached  by  steps  cut  in  the  rock  was  a  rock-cut  terrace, 
which  probably  gave  access  to  a  second  story  supported  by  the 
columns  of  the  ground  floor.  Only  the  initiated  were  allowed  to 
take  part  in  the  mysteries,  —  a  fact  which  may  perhaps  explain 
the  enclosed  character  of  the  structure. 

The  assembly  hall  at  Megalopolis  (Fig.  125),  called  the  Thersil- 
ion  in  honor  of  its  founder,  was  larger  than  the  Telesterion  at 
Eleusis,  for  it  measured  61  m.  by  52111.  (about  200  Thersilionat 
ft.  by  170  ft.)  and  could  accommodate  all  the  dele-  Megalopolis 
gates  from  Arcadia,  10,000  in  number.  It  had  a  Doric  portico 
which  bordered  upon  the  orchestra  of  the  theatre  ;  within,  the 
speaker's  position  was  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  hall,  and  seats 
for  hearers  rose  in  rectangular  tiers  on  all  sides.  The  columns 


1 6o 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


that  supported  the  rooi 
were  so  arranged  thaf 
the  greatest  possible 
number  of  auditors  coulti 
see  the  speaker.  The 
columns  near  the  centre 
stood  2.50  m.  (8. 20  ft.) 
lower  than  those  farthest 
away,  for  the  floor  rose 
in  steps  toward  the  walls. 
Other  halls  for  meet- 
ings had  a  horseshoe 
form,  with  Bouleuterion 
seats  ar-  at  Miletus 
ranged  as  in  a  theatre. 
Among  these  the  Bou- 
leuterion at  Miletus  (Fig. 
126)  is  remarkable.  It 
is  semicircular,  and  has 


FIG.  125 

mann, 


—  Thersilion  at  Megalopolis.      (Borr- 
Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  I,  Fig.  121.) 


four  radiating  flights  of  steps  which  divide 
the  seats  into  three  sections.  It  has  two 
entrances  at  the  back  and  four  in  front  of 
the  seats.  Before  the  hall  was  a  court,  in 
which  stood  an  altar,  and  the  entrance  to 
the  court  was  through  a  propylaeum,  so 
that  the  whole  formed  an  imposing  ensemble. 
The  Bouleuterion  at  Priene  was  similar,  but 
had  no  forecourt. 

Apart    from    the    types    just    described, 
Greek   civic  buildings  were  chiefly  colon- 
nades cleverly  adapted  to  their 
Porticoes  r^ 

special  purposes.     Porticoes  or 

stoae  bordering  on  public  squares  and  in- 


FlG.  126.  —  Bouleuterion 
at  Miletus.  (Bon  mann, 
Geschickte  der  Bau- 
kunst, I,  Fig.  122.) 


ARCHITECTURE  161 

tended  for  the  adminstration  of  justice  had  sometimes  several 
aisles  and  sometimes  a  second  story.  Generally  the  interior  sup- 
ports ranged  with  every  second  column  of  the  facade.  The  basilica 
of  Roman  times  was  perhaps  derived  from  the  three-aisled  stoa, 
and  it  is  even  possible  that  the  name  "  basilica  "  comes  from  the 
name  of  the  stoa  at  Athens  in  which  the  Archon  Basileus  adminis- 
tered justice.  At  Priene  the  administrative  stoa  had  two  aisles, 
and  at  the  rear  were  rooms  for  private  offices  or  for  the  safe  keep- 
ing of  money  or  documents. 

A  second  variety  of  stoa  was  devoted  to  the  comfort  of  the  people 
for  protection  from  the  sun  or  rain,  for  the  Greeks  lived  but 
little  indoors,  and  spent  their  days  chiefly  in  public  places.  Here 
the  citizens  would  congregate  to  discuss  matters  of  public  inter- 
est, and  here,  too,  the  philosophers  would  gather  their  disciples. 
Such  stoae  were  sometimes  of  great  length,  especially  in  Hellen- 
istic times.  They  generally  had  two  aisles ;  the  Stoa  of  the  Cor- 
cyraeans  at  Elis  had,  however,  a  dividing  wall  down  the  middle, 
with  two  aisles  on  each  side  of  it. 

Leschae  (Xeo-xai),  or  places  for  conversation,  were  also  a  variety 
of  stoa.  Their  purpose  was  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  modern 
clubs,  and  indeed  the  modern  Greeks  use  the  word  "  lesche  "  to  des- 
ignate a  club.  The  lesche  of  the  Cnidians,  at  Delphi,  measured 
i  ym.  by  18  m.  (about  56  ft.  by  59  ft.),  and  two  rows  of  four 
columns  each  divided  the  interior  into  three  aisles.  The  famous 
painter  Polygnotus  decorated  the  walls  with  scenes  from  the  Trojan 
cycle  of  myths. 

The  Leonidaeum  at  Olympia  (Fig.  no)  shows  a  more  developed 
use  of  the  portico.  It  was  built  at  some  time  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury by  a  certain  Leonidas,  and  although  it  was  rebuilt  in  Roman 
times,  the  general  scheme  does  not  seem  to  have  been  changed. 
It  consisted  of  a  central  court  29.67  m.  (97.35  ft.)  square  sur- 
rounded by  Doric  porticoes.  The  outside  (80.18  m.  by  78  m., 
or  about  263  ft.  by  256  ft.)  was  adorned  on  all  sides  with  an 
Ionic  colonnade,  which  gave  the  building  a  very  impressive  ap- 
pearance. Between  the  outer  and  inner  colonnades  were  small 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  II 


162  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

connecting  rooms,  some  of  which  were  apparently  used  for  ad- 
ministrative purposes,  and  others  for  the  lodging  of  honored 
guests. 

The  gymnasia,  where  young  men  received  both  physical  and 
mental  instruction,  seem  to  have  risen  to  special  importance  at 

the  end  of  the  third  century.     They  consisted  of  a 
Gymnasia    .  ... 

large  central  court,  which  was  used  as  the  exercising 

place  for  the  runners,  wrestlers,  boxers,  and  other  athletes,  and 
which  was  surrounded  by  colonnades  and  connecting  rooms ;  in 
addition  there  was  a  smaller  court,  called  the  palaestra,  commu- 
nicating with  the  larger  court  and  surrounded  in  its  turn  by  rooms 
for  dressing,  exercising,  lectures,  and  other  purposes.  The  palaes- 
tra was  the  school  in  which  boxing,  wrestling,  and  other  exer- 
cises were  taught ;  and  in  some  of  the  rooms  courses  of  mental  in- 
struction were  given.  The  gymnasium  at  Olympia  (Fig.  1 10)  agreed 
with  the  theoretical  description  given  by  Vitruvius  in  that  it  had 
two  parts,  the  palaestra  and  the  gymnasium  proper ;  the  palaestra 
measured  66.35  m.  by  66.85  m.  (217.69  ft.  by  219.33  ^-)  ar>d  was  a 
completely  enclosed  building  on  the  outside.  Within  there  was  a 
court  4 1  m.  (134.52  ft.)  square  surrounded  by  Doric  porticoes.  The 
portico  at  the  south  end  of  the  court  had  two  aisles ;  from  those  on 
the  other  sides  opened  apartments  of  various  kinds,  with  Ionic  col- 
umns at  the  entrances,  which  may  have  served  as  lecture  rooms, 
dressing  rooms,  etc.  Some  of  these  still  contain  their  ancient 
stone  benches  running  round  the  walls.  The  entrances  to  the 
palaestra  were  symmetrically  placed  at  the  eastern  and  western 
corners  of  the  southern  facade,  and  consisted  of  small  vestibules, 
each  with  two  Corinthian  columns  between  antae.  These  vesti- 
bules were  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  passers-by  from  looking  in, 
and  also  to  hinder  the  entrance  of  a  direct  draught  of  air. 

Immediately  to  the  north  of  the  palaestra  was  the  main  gym- 
nasium, an  open  exercising  place,  more  than  a  stadium  in  length 
and  surrounded  by  colonnades.  Here  all  the  competitors  in  the 
great  games  had  to  spend  at  least  the  last  month  of  their  period 
of  training  under  the  eye  of  an  official.  The  southern  colonnade 


ARCHITECTURE 


163 


of  the  gymnasium  abutted  on  the  northern  wall  of  the  palaestra ; 
how  far  it  extended  towards  the  west  is  unknown,  as  its  remains 
have  been  destroyed  by  the  changes  of  the  bed  of  the  river  Cla- 
deus.  The  eastern  colonnade  was  in  the  Doric  style,  and  was  di- 
vided into  two  aisles.  It  was  nearly  220  yards  long,  and  was 
evidently  used  as  a  race  course  in  bad  weather,  for  it  had  the 
same  arrangements  for  the  start  which  are  seen  in  the  stadium. 
The  entrance  to  the  gymnasium  was  at  the  southeast  corner, 
through  a  propylaeum  which  dates 
from  the  Roman  period. 

At  Epidaurus  the  Greek  Archae- 
ological Society  has  excavated  an 
exceedingly  well-planned  gymnasium 
(Fig.  127).  It  measures  75.36  m. 
by  69.53  m<  (247.26  ft.  by  228.13 
ft.)  and  has  a  stately  entrance  pro- 
pylaeum at  the  northwest  corner. 

In  the  rich  cities,  especially  in 
Hellenistic  times,  the  intellectual 
uses  of  the  gymnasia  often  became 
very  important.  At  Alexandria,  for 
example,  under  the  Ptolemies,  the 
Museum,  which  was  a  developed 
gymnasium,  might  almost  be  called 
an  academy  of  sciences.  Unfortunately  little  is  known  about  this 
famous  building,  except  that  it  included  extensive  gardens,  foun- 
tains, porticoes,  a  library,  and  a  spacious  restaurant. 

The  best  known  of  the  stadia,  in  which  festival  games  took 
place,  were  at  Athens,  Delphi,  Olympia,  Nemea,  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth,  Messene,  and  Epidaurus.  At  Olympia  the 
simplicity  of  the  stadium  contrasted  strongly  with  the 
importance  of  the  games.  It  was  a  rectangle,  measuring  214  m. 
by  32  m.  (about  702  ft.  by  105  ft.).  The  northern  side  rested  upon 
the  slope  of  a  hill,  and  on  the  other  three  sides  were  merely 
artificial  embankments  of  earth.  There  were  no  especially 


FIG.  127.  —  Gymnasium  at  Epi- 
daurus. (Borrmann,  Geschichte 
der  Baukunst,  I,  Fig.  123.) 


Stadia 


164 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


constructed  stone  tiers  of  seats.  The  course  was  drained  by  a 
channel  for  rain  water.  The  start  and  finish  of  the  course  are 
marked  by  lines  of  white  limestone  sills,  with  holes  for  upright 
posts  to  separate  the  runners.  The  course  from  start  to  finish  is 
a  straightaway  dash  of  630.80  English  feet  or  600  Olympic  feet, 
one  of  the  most  important  measures  of  antiquity.1  In  Roman 


FIG.  128,  —  Stadium  at  Athens.     (Photograph.) 

times  the  earthen  enbankments  were  made  higher  to  increase 
the  seating  capacity,  and  an  arched  entrance  leading  from  the 
Altis  was  built.  The  hippodrome,  for  chariot  races,  which  lay 
immediately  southeast  of  the  stadium,  has  been  completely  washed 
away  by  the  river  Alpheus.  A  late  Greek  manuscript  mentions 
that  the  distance  once  round  the  course  was  eight  stadia  (about 

1  A  stadium  was  everywhere  600  feet,  but  the  foot  used  as  a  unit  was  not 
the  same  in  different  places. 


ARCHITECTURE  165 

233  ft.  less  than  a  mile).  The  peculiar  arrangement  for  the  start 
is  minutely  described  by  Pausanias  (VI,  20,  7). 

The  stadium  at  Epidaurus  dates  from  the  Hellenistic  period. 
It  has,  like  the  stadium  at  Olympia,  square,  not  curved,  ends. 
Its  length  is  181.08  m.  (594.12  ft.).  The  start  and  finish  are 
indicated  by  a  line  with  iron  pegs,  and  there  are  columns  every 
hundred  feet  to  separate  the  runners  and  to  mark  the  distance. 

The  stadium  at  Athens,  laid  out  in  330  B.C.,  was  formed  by  the 
artificial  expansion  and  adaptation  of  a  natural  hollow  between  two 
hills.  About  140  A.D.  seats  of  Pentelic  marble  were  added  by  Hero- 
des  Atticus,  whose  example  has  recently  been  followed  by  Mr.  Averoff 
of  Alexandria,  so  that  to-day  the  stadium  at  Athens,  in  which  the 
modern  "  Olympic  Games  "  are  held,  is  entirely  of  white  marble. 
The  length  of  the  plot  of  ground  within  the  stadium  is  670  ft. ; 
there  are  about  fifty  rows  of  seats,  and  accommodation  for  50,000 
spectators  (Fig.  128). 

The  most  important  Greek  edifices,  after  the  temples  and 
perhaps  the  stoae,  are  the  theatres.  The  Greek  drama  developed 

from  the  songs  and  dances  at  the  festivals  of  Diony- 

..     ,.    ;  ,    Theatres 

sus.     At   first,    perhaps,  a  chorus   sang   and  danced 

about  the  altar,  and  the  spectators  gathered  round  in  a  circle. 
As  the  performance  became  more  dramatic,  its  outward  setting 
remained  the  same  —  a  circular  place,  the  orchestra,  about  an 
altar.  Then  seats  for  the  spectators  were  provided,  rising  in  tiers 
on  a  slope,  that  all  might  see.  The  seats  were  at  first  only  the 
natural  side  of  a  hill,  or  were  made  of  wood,  but  later  they  were 
constructed  of  stones  bedded  on  the  slope  or  on  artificial  founda- 
tions, as  the  nature  of  the  ground  demanded.  These  stone  seats 
were  so  cut  as  to  give  room  for  each  spectator  to  dispose  of  his 
feet  without  incommoding  the  person  in  front  of  him.  At  Eretria 
and  some  other  places,  the  theatre  did  not  lean  against  a  hill, 
and  doubtless  some  theatres  never  had  seats  of  stone.  The 
seats  of  Greek  theatres  embrace  considerably  more  than  a  semi- 
circle, and  the  parts  beyond  the  semicircle  are  either  straight 
(tangential)  or  on  a  curve  of  greater  radius  than  the  semicircle, — 


166  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

an  arrangement  which  gave  to  those  occupying  the  end  seats  a 
better  view  than  if  the  curve  of  the  semicircle  had  been  continued. 
In  most  cases  the  seats  were  divided  into  a  lower  and  an  upper 
section  by  a  horizontal  passage  (diazoma)  about  halfway  up. 
They  were  also  divided  into  wedge-shaped  divisions  by  radiating 
flights  of  steps  about  two  feet  wide.  The  seats  of  honor  were 
nearly  on  the  level  of  the  orchestra,  from  which  they  were  sepa- 
rated by  a  passage. 

The  third  part  of  the  theatre,  at  first  far  less  important  than 
the  orchestra  or  the  tiers  of  seats,  was  the  scene  (O-KT/V^,  scaena), 
originally  merely  a  booth  or  some  other  simple  structure  which 
served  as  a  dressing  room  for  the  actors.  It  was  not  connected 
with  the  seats.  As  time  went  on,  the  scene  building  was  enlarged. 
It  now  contained  permanent  dressing  rooms  and  places  for  storage, 
and  its  different  parts  received  distinct  names.  Between  the  ends 
of  the  scene  building  and  the  auditorium  were  the  parodi  (TrapoSot), 
or  entrances  for  the  chorus,  which  could  be  closed  by  doors. 
The  arrangement  and  purpose  of  some  of  the  parts  of  the  scene 
building  are  as  yet  uncertain.  There  was  the  scene  proper,  or 
players'  booth,  and  the  proscenium  (irpoaK^viov),  a  covered  place 
six  to  ten  feet  wide  and  ten  to  thirteen  feet  high,  between  the 
scene  and  the  orchestra.  The  proscenium  had  a  front  wall 
composed  of  columns  half  engaged,  between  which  were  movable 
painted  wooden  panels.  Its  roof,  which  was  carried  on  beams 
of  wood  or  stone,  was  flat  or  slightly  inclined.  Sometimes  one 
central  door,  sometimes  three  doors,  gave  the  players  direct  access 
to  the  orchestra.  Sometimes  two  symmetrically  projecting  wings, 
called  parascenia  (-n-apaaKyvia.) ,  which  seem  to  have  been  used 
as  storerooms,  extended  into  the  orchestra.  As  a  rule,  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  scene  building  had  apparently  an  upper  story, 
which  served  as  a  background,  though  it  received  no  decorative 
treatment. 

The  point  in  doubt  is  whether  the  proscenium  was  used  as  a 
stage  or  merely  as  a  background,  before  which  the  players  per- 
formed in  the  orchestra.  The  supporters  of  the  latter  view  admit 


ARCHITECTURE  167 

that  actors  representing  gods,  and  even  other  actors  in  certain 
cases,  may  have  spoken  from  the  top  of  the  proscenium,  and 
steps  seen  in  some  theatres  indicate  that  access  to  the  top  of  the 
proscenium  was  provided  for.  But  the  Greek  proscenium  was  too 
narrow  to  accommodate  the  action  of  a  play.  It  differed  greatly 
from  the  stage  of  Roman  times,  and  still  more  from  that  of  to-day. 
In  Hellenic  times  the  play  was  apparently  performed  on  the  level 
ground  of  the  orchestra,  and  the  actors  were  distinguished  from 
the  chorus  only  by  their  costume  and  their  action.1  It  was  not  until 
Roman  times  that  the  actors  were  separated  from  the  chorus  and 
raised  upon  a  higher  speaking  place  (Aoye<W).  In  the  Greek 
theatre  the  orchestra  remained  a  circle,  in  the  centre  of  which  was 
the  altar  of  Dionysus.  It  is  highly  probable  that  theatres  were 
often  designed  with  a  view  to  more  than  one  purpose,  since  they 
were  used  not  only  for  dramatic  performances,  but  also  for  public 
assemblies  of  various  kinds. 

Nearly  all  Greek  theatres  were  restored  and  changed  in  Roman 
times,  and  therefore  the  remains  of  earlier  structures  are  few  and 
not  always  clear;  but  there  is  enough  to  show  that  in  the  first 
stone  theatre  at  Athens  and  in  the  theatre  at  Eretria,2  both  of 
which  are  as  early  as  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  and  also  in  the 
theatre  at  Segesta,  the  scene  building  had  two  wings  (parascenia) 
projecting  toward  the  orchestra.  There  is,  however,  no  indication 
that  a  solid  wall  or  permanent  structure  (proscenium)  existed 
between  these  wings,  at  least  not  until  after  the  middle  of  the 
third  century. 

The  theatre  at  Megalopolis  (Fig.  125)  presents  a  number  of 
peculiarities.  It  dates  probably  from  the  fourth  century.  The 

1  There  are  no  remains  which  illustrate  the  scenic  arrangements  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  and  not  all  scholars  accept  for  that  time  the  theory  here  briefly 
presented. 

2  A   feature  of  special  interest  in  this  theatre   (which  is,  however,  not 
unique)   is  a  subterranean  passage  leading  from  the  scene  building  to  the 
middle  of  the  orchestra.     This  would  permit  an  actor  to  appear  and  disappear 
at  that  point. 


1 68 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


diameter  of  the  orchestra  is  30.16  m.  (about  99  ft).  It  is  the 
largest  theatre  in  Greece,  having  twice  the  seating  capacity  of  the 
Theatre  at  theatre  at  Athens.  There  are  two  diazomata,  which 
Megalopolis  divide  the  seats  into  an  upper,  a  middle,  and  a 
lower  section.  On  the  tangent  to  the  orchestra  rose  the  stately 
Doric  facade  of  the  Thersilion,  and  therefore,  on  account  of  the 
cramped  space,  the  dressing  rooms  were  placed  at  one  side. 
Part  of  the  orchestra  was  cut  off  by  a  proscenium  with  four- 
teen stone  columns  and  with  piers  at  the  ends.  As  there  are 
no  traces  of  a  wall  or  a  platform  behind  these  columns,  it 
would  seem  that  the  proscenium  must  have  served  as  a  back- 
ground. 

The  scene  building  of  the  theatre  at  Delos  was  also  remarkable 

(Fig.  129).    It  was  a  rectangular  building,  with  three  doors  toward 

Theatre  at   t^ie  orchestra  and  one  at  the  back,  surrounded  by 

Delos       porticoes  of  equal  height  on  all  sides.     On  the  side 

toward  the  orchestra  were  piers  with  engaged  columns  which  were 

much  nearer  together  than  the 
square  supports  on  the  three 
other  sides,  and  which  formed 
(perhaps  with  panels  inserted 
between  them)  the  proscenium. 
This  was,  according  to  an  in- 
scription, erected  in  269  B.C. 
to  replace  a  wooden  structure. 
It  was  evidently  regarded  as  an 
independent  piece  of  work,  not 
as  part  of  one  whole  with  the 
side  colonnades.  As  it  had  no 
upper  story,  it  can  hardly  have 
been  used  as  a  stage. 

Some    of    the    theatres    of 
Greece  proper  form  a  group  by 


FIG.  129. — Theatre  at  Delos.  (Borr- 
mann,  Geschickte  der  Baukunst,  I, 
Fig.  126.) 


themselves,  on  account  of  the  arrangement  of  their  proscenia  and 
their  adjacent  passages.     First  in  importance  is  that  of  Epidaurus 


ARCHITECTURE 


169 


(Fig.  130),  the  best  preserved  of  all  Greek  theatres.    The  con- 
struction and  adornment  of  this  edifice,  which  excelled  all  known 
Greek  theatres  in  beauty  and  richness,  are  attributed  xheatreat 
by  Pausanias  to  Polyclitus  the  younger.     The  audi-  Epidaurus 
torium   (Oearpov,  cavea),  laid  out  on  arcs  described  from  three 
centres,  was  divided  by  a  broad  diazoma  into  a  lower  section  of 
thirty-two  rows  of  seats 
and  an  upper  section  of 
twenty  rows.     The  seats 
in  the  first  and  last  rows 
of  the  lower  section  and 
in  the  first   row   of  the 
upper  section  had  backs. 
The  lower  section  was  di- 
vided into  twelve  wedge- 
shaped  divisions  (/cep/ccSes, 

CUnei}  and  the  upper  in- 
i 

to  twenty-two  by  narrow 


FIG.  130.  —  Theatre  at  Epidaurus.     (Borrmann, 
Geschichte  der  Baukunst.  I,  Fig.  124.) 


flights  of  steps.  Behind  the  top  row  of  seats  was  a  passage  seven 
feet  wide  running  along  the  outer  wall  of  the  building.  The  or- 
chestra, a  circular  space  about  20  m.  (65  ft.)  in  diameter,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  ring  of  limestone,  and  between  this  and  the  seats 
was  a  passage,  which  widened  toward  the  scene  building.  The 
floor  of  the  orchestra  was  of  beaten  earth.  At  the  centre  stands  a 
stone,  on  which  the  altar  of  Dionysus  may  have  rested.  The 
arrangement  of  the  scene  building  is  quite  clear.  The  proscenium, 
22.60  m.  (74.15  ft.)  long  and  3.50  m.  (11.48  ft.)  high,  had  a  front 
formed  of  twelve  piers  with  engaged  Ionic  half  columns.  It  was 
flanked  by  wings  (parascenia),  which  projected  only  i  m.  (39.37  in.) 
and  had  engaged  three-quarter  columns  at  their  corners.  Beyond 
these  wings,  beside  the  entrances  to  the  orchestra,  were  ramps  lead- 
ing to  the  top  of  the  proscenium.  At  the  eastern  end  there  was  a 
second  ramp  leading  to  the  upper  floor  of  the  scene  building. 
The  lower  part  of  the  scene  building  consisted  of  a  room  19.50  m, 
(about  64  ft.)  long  and  6  m.  (about  20  ft.)  wide,  with  two  adjoining 


170  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

wings,  and  an  additional  room  at  one  end.  Although  the  scene 
building  was  restored  about  200  B.C.,  the  original  plan  seems  to 
have  been  preserved.  The  restored  parts  are  the  columns  with 
their  entablatures  and  the  doorways  in  the  parodi.  The  pro- 
scenium here  is  so  narrow  that  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  it  can 
have  been  used  as  a  stage.1 

The  theatre  of  Dionysus  at  Athens  has  undergone  many  resto- 
rations and  alterations.  The  slope  of  the  hill  of  the  Acropolis 
Theatre  at  f°rmed  the  original  auditorium,  and  it  was  not  until 

Athens  the  time  of  Lycurgus  (about  340  B.C.)  that  the  theatre 
was  completed  on  a  large  scale  in  permanent  materials.  It  was 
rebuilt  in  Hellenistic  times  and  also  in  Roman  times,  so  that  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  exactly  what  its  earlier  appearance  was. 
Neither  the  orchestra  nor  the  cavea  presents  striking  peculiarities. 
The  front  rows  of  seats  consisted  of  chairs  of  Pentelic  marble,  the 
central  one  of  which  was  beautifully  carved  and  was  reserved,  as 
its  inscription  ('Icpe'ws  Aioi/w-ou  'EAeuflepews)  states,  for  the  priest 
of  Dionysus  Eleuthereus.  The  present  orchestra  is  due  to  a 
restoration  dating  from  the  time  of  Nero  and  still  later.  The  pro- 
scenium of  the  time  of  Lycurgus  was  20.95  m.  (about  69  ft.)  long, 
almost  as  long  as  that  at  Epidaurus,  which  it  probably  resembled 
in  its  general  features.  It  was  4  m.  (13.12  ft.)  in  height  and  had 
fourteen  Doric  columns  flanked  by  parascenia  with  six  columns. 
In  the  middle  intercolumniation  was  a  door ;  in  the  others  were 
wooden  panels.  On  the  south,  adjoining  the  scene  building,  was 
a  colonnade,  which,  with  the  stoa  of  Eumenes  that  connected  the 
theatre  with  the  odeum  of  Herodes  Atticus,  offered  shelter  in  case 
of  rain.2 

In  Asia  Minor  still  another  arrangement  of  the  scene  building 
is  found.  At  Assos  and  Priene  (Fig.  131)  near  the  parodi  were 
doors  leading  into  the  lower  rooms  of  the  scene  building  (the  hypo- 

1  The  scene  building  of  the  theatre  at  Sicyon  resembled  that  at  Epidaurus 
in  most  respects. 

2  Both  the  stoa  of  Eumenes  and  the  odeum  of  Herodes  were  built  long 
after  the  time  of  Lycurgus. 


ARCHITECTURE 


171 


scenia),  on  a  level 
with  the  orchestra, 
and  at  the  ends  of 
the  scene  build- 
ing were  stairs 
leading  up  to  the 
proscenium.  The 
proscenium  itself 
was  longer  than 
the  building 
behind  it.  The 
theatre  at  Priene 
is  especially  inter- 
esting on  account 
of  its  unusually 
good  preservation 
(Fig.  132). 


FIG.  131.  — Theatre  at  Priene.     (Wiegand  and  Schra- 
der,  Priene,  Fig.  229.) 


FlG.  132.  —  Theatre  at  Priene.     (Wiegand  and  Schrader,  Priene,  PI.  16.) 


i? 2  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

There  are  many  theatres  (at  Athens,  Ephesus,  Termessus,  and 

other  places)  in  which  the  progress  of  the  change  from  the  Greek 

Other        to  the    Roman  form    may   be  traced.     The    Roman 

theatres  theatre  had  a  low  and  comparatively  broad  stage, 
backed  by  a  wall  as  high  as  the  outer  wall  of  the  auditorium  and 
united  with  it.  This  wall  at  the  rear  of  the  stage  generally  had 
three  doors,  and  received  an  elaborate  architectural  treatment  of 
superposed  orders.  The  circular  orchestra  of  Greek  times  be- 
came, on  account  of  the  encroachment  of  the  stage,  a  semicircle. 

In  a  country  so  turbulent  as  ancient  Greece,  it  is  not  strange  to 

find  each  city  surrounded  by  walls,  with  strongly  fortified  gates  and 

Fortifica-     many  projecting  towers.1     Usually  the  lower  part  of 

tions         the  wall  was  of  carefully  constructed  stonework,  and 

the  upper  part  of  crude  brick.      Nearly  every  city  had  also  an 

acropolis,  which  could  be  held  even  after  the  city  was  taken.    The 

passes  which  led  from  the  territory  of  one  city  to  that  of  another 

were  also  protected  by  forts,  some  of  which  were  of  great  strength. 

The  fortifications  of  Athens  included  the  Acropolis,  the  city 
walls  with  their  gates,  the  long  walls  to  the  Piraeus,  and  the  walls 
of  the  Piraeus  itself.  The  Dipylon,  or  double  gate,  from  which  the 
road  to  Eleusis  led,  was  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  circuit  wall, 
and  therefore  needed  special  defences.  It  consisted  of  an  outer 
and  an  inner  gateway,  each  flanked  by  towers.  Curtain  walls  con- 
nected the  two  gates,  forming  a  court,  into  which,  if  the  enemy 
forced  the  first  gate,  the  defenders  could  shoot  from  all  sides. 
The  width  of  the  doorways  was  3.45  m.  (n^  ft.).  A  central  post 
divided  the  passage,  which  was  wide  enough  for  two  chariots  to  pass. 
Adjoining  the  southeastern  tower  was  a  well  house  containing  a  water 
basin  fed  from  an  aqueduct.  The  wearing  of  the  pavement  at  this 
spot  shows  that  the  water  was  constantly  used. 

At  Messene  the  fortifications  (370-369  B.C.)  are  much  better 
preserved  than  at  Athens.  The  towers  of  the  city  wall  are  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  square  and  project  about  twelve  feet  be- 

1  Sparta,  trusting  in  her  military  organization,  was  not  fortified  in  the  period 
of  her  greatest  power. 


ARCHITECTURE  173 

yond  the  face  of  the  wall.  Some  of  them  are  circular  in  plan,  and 
these  generally  have  sally  ports.  The  top  of  the  city  wall  is  reached 
by  stairs  on  the  city  side,  and  from  the  top  of  the  wall  doors  give 
access  to  the  towers,  which  rise  a  story  higher.  The  towers  have 
also  loopholes  and  windows.  The  holes  for  the  ends  of  the  beams 
that  supported  the  wooden  floors  are  still  plainly  visible.  The 
Arcadian  Gate  is  one  of  the  best  existing  examples  of  a  fortified 
gateway.  It  resembles  the  Dipylon  at  Athens  in  a  general  way, 
having  an  inner  and  an  outer  gate  separated  by  a  circular  court 
fifty-five  feet  in  diameter.  The  walls  rise  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
three  feet.  The  outer  entrance,  fifteen  feet  wide,  is  flanked  by 
square  towers.  The  gate  toward  the  city  had  a  centre  post  nine- 
teen feet  high. 

Fort  Euryelus,  at  Syracuse,  built  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius  (406- 
367  B.C.)  to  help  in  protecting  the  city  from  the  Carthaginians,  is 
an  extraordinary  piece  of  military  architecture.  It  is  placed  at  the 
intersection  of  the  southern  and  northwestern  walls,  and  lies  to 
the  west  of  the  ancient  quarter  known  as  Epipolae.  The  fort  con- 
sists of  a  spacious  court  preceded  by  five  massive  towers,  which 
are  protected  in  their  turn  by  two  deep,  rock-cut  fosses.  Rock- 
cut  subterranean  passages  connect  these  fosses  with  the  court 
and  with  another,  smaller,  fort  situated  to  the  northeast. 

FUNERAL  MONUMENTS  AND  VOTIVE  OFFERINGS 

Greek  funeral  monuments  which  may  be  classed  as  architecture 
show  great  variety  in  form  and  style.     A  very  early  custom  was 
that  of  burial  in  stone  tombs,  of  which  the  beehive      Funeral 
tombs  at  Mycenae  are  the  finest  examples.     The  tomb  monuments 
of  Pelops  at  Olympia  was  a  mound  of  earth  covered  with  growing 
trees  and  surrounded  by  a  strong  wall  with  an  elaborate  entrance, 
and  even  in  historical  times  the  tumulus  is  by  no  means  uncommon. 

The  heroum  at  Trysa  (Gjolbaschi)  in  Lycia  is  a  cemetery 
24.50  m.  by  19.60  m.  (80.40  ft.  by  64.30  ft.)  in  size,  surrounded 
by  a  high  wall.  It  contained  large  and  small  tombs,  a  small  me- 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


morial  portico,  and  a  watchman's  house.  The  enclosing  wall  was 
decorated  with  reliefs  which  represent  scenes  from  Greek  myths 
(see  p.  249),  in  the  style  that  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century.  A  magnificent  example  of  the  enclosed  cemetery  in  Hel- 
lenistic times  was  the  heroum  of  Antigonus  Gonatas  at  Cnidus,  in 
which  there  were  not  only  graves  and  an  altar,  but  also  a  stadium, 
a  circular  colonnade,  and  a  bathing  establishment.  The  type  of 
enclosed  cemetery  appears  also  in  Roman  times. 
It  was  an  ancient  Greek  custom  to  bury  the 
dead  immediately  outside  of  the  town  gates, 
along  the  highways.1  The  individual  tombs  had, 
as  a  rule,  simple,  but  singularly  beautiful,  em- 
blems. 

The  earliest  tombs  outside  the  Dipylon  at 
Athens  were  marked  by  large  painted  vases  of 
the  geometric  style  (see  p.  439),  some  of  which 
were  as  much  as  1.75  m.  (about  5  ft.  9  in.)  in 
height.  In  the  sixth  century  the  stele  became 
popular  —  a  high,  narrow  slab  of  stone,  tapering 
upward.2  In  the  early  gravestones  of  this  form, 
almost  the  whole  face  of  the  stele  is  occupied 
by  the  entire  figure  of  the  departed  in  low  re- 
lief, and  the  top  is  finished  with  a  painted  or 
carved  acroterion.  In  the  fourth  century  the 
reliefs  of  the  stelae  become  smaller  and  relatively 
higher,  and  the  tops  are  finished  sometimes  with 
a  gable,  sometimes  with  a  palmette  acroterion  (Fig.  133).  An- 
other type  is  broader,  with  pilasters  at  the  sides,  a  type  which 

1  The  street  of  tombs  at  Syracuse  is  most  remarkable.     It  begins  above  the 
theatre,  and  is  cut  in  the  living  rock  to  a  depth  of  ten  feet  for  a  considerable 
distance.     In  the  sides  are  numerous  cavities  and  tomb  chambers,  which  are 
now  despoiled  of  their  contents  and  decorations.      The  street  of  tombs  at 
Assos  (now  almost  entirely  destroyed)  and  that  at  Pompeii  are  also  of  special 
interest. 

2  The  same  form  was  often  used  for  public  inscriptions,  such  as  treasurer's 
accounts,  records  of  treaties,  etc. 


FIG.  133.  —  Attic 
grave  stele. 
(Photograph.) 


ARCHITECTURE  175 

developed  into  a  niche  containing  life-sized  figures  carved  in  the 
round  (cp.  Figs.  202,  203). 

Introduced  perhaps  later  than  the  stele,  but  to  a  great  extent 
contemporaneous  with  it,  is  the  stone  grave-vase,  of  elegant, 
simple  forms,  varying  in  height  from  two  to  six  or  eight  feet. 
Some  examples  are  beautifully  decorated  with  architectural  orna- 
ment, others  with  reliefs  representing  scenes  of  parting  cr  of 
everyday  family  life. 

In  sarcophagi,  such  as  those  found  at  Sidon  and  now  in  the 
Museum  at  Constantinople  (see  p.  274),  architectural  forms  are 
imitated  in  sculpture,  and  with  the  architectural  forms  are  com- 
bined reliefs,  which  are  sometimes  of  the  greatest  beauty.  Archi- 
tectural forms  are  especially  prominent  in  the  so-called  Sarcopha- 
gus of  the  Mourners  (Fig.  204).  The  sarcophagi  found  at  Sidon 
were  deposited  in  rock-cut  chambers,  a  type  of  tomb  common  in 
Phoenician  countries,  which  reached  a  remarkable  development 
among  the  Christians  at  Rome. 

Votive  offerings  and  monuments,  such  as  statues  of  gods,  men, 
or  animals,  tripods,  etc.,  were  often  supported  by  round,  four- 
sided,  or  polygonal  shafts  or  pedestals.  The  column,  Votive 
with  base,  fluted  shaft,  and  capital,  was  frequently  used  offerings 
as  a  support,  as,  for  instance,  the  Naxian  column,  which  supported 
a  sphinx  at  Delphi,  or,  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  the  numerous 
columns  that  supported  statues  which  were  overthrown  when  the 
Persians  occupied  the  city.  To  this  class  belong  also  the  twisted 
bronze  serpent  column  now  in  Constantinople,  which  was  erected 
at  Delphi  after  the  battle  of  Plataea,  and  once  supported  the 
bowl  of  a  tripod ;  the  acanthus  column  at  Delphi;  at  Olympia  the 
three-sided  tapering  pedestal  upon  which  seemed  to  float  the 
famous  Nike  of  Paeonius,  and  two  Ionic  columns,  thirty  feet  high, 
which  stood  in  front  of  the  Echo  Hall  and  bore  the  statues  of 
Ptolemy  II  Philadelphus  and  his  consort  Arsinoe. 

About  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  more  importance 
began  to  be  attached  in  Greece  proper  to  the  architecture  of  tombs 
and  votive  offerings  than  to  the  sculpture  connected  with  them. 


176 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


So  the  choregic  monument  of  Nicias,  at  Athens,  had  a  facade  like 
that  of  a  Doric  temple,  and  the  monument  of  Thrasyllus  had  an 
architectural  facade  with  square  piers,  the  whole  surmounted  by  a 


FlG.  134. —  Monument  of  Lysicrates.     (Photograph.) 

large  statue.     Frequently  the  leading  idea  was  height,  rather  than 
Structures      width,  and  many  were  the  imposing  and  interesting 


in  several 
stories 


structures  designed  with  this  in  view.      The  striving 
for  height  led  to  structures  of  several  stories,  but  the 
stories  were  not  mere  repetitions  one  of  another.     Columns  were 


ARCHITECTURE 


177 


placed  upon  heavy  substructures,  and  the  principle  of  contrast  in 
architecture  was  developed.  The  chief  extant  structure  of  this 
class  at  Athens  is  the  choregic  monument  of  Lysicrates  (Fig.  134), 
the  date  of  which  (335-334  B.C.)  is  fortunately  known.  It  was 
erected  by  Lysicrates,  the  winner  of  a  choral  contest,  to  bear 
his  prize,  a  bronze  tripod.  The  monument  is  in  relatively  good 
preservation.  It  is  10.50  m.  (34.45  ft.)  high,  and  consists  of  a 
square  base,  thirteen  feet  high,  of  Piraeic  stone,  upon  which  rests 
a  circular  structure  of 
Pentelic  marble,  nine 
feet  in  diameter.  This 
is  decorated  with  six 
engaged  columns  3.56 
m.  (n.68  ft.)  high, 
which  have  Corinthian 
capitals  of  exquisite 
beauty  (Fig.  101).  The 
relief  of  the  frieze  rep- 
resents Dionysus  pun- 
ishing the  Tyrrhenian 
pirates, — a  legend 
which  may  have  been 
the  subject  of  the  musi- 
cal composition  which 
won  the  prize.  The 
slightly  convex  roof, 
decorated  with  scales,  and  the  acanthus  scrolls  which  carried  the  tri- 
pod, all  carved  from  one  block  of  marble,  are  worthy  of  careful  study. 
The  earliest  known  example  of  a  building  in  the  form  of  a 
temple  elevated  upon  a  high,  solid  base  is  the  Nereid  Monument, 
from  Xanthus,  in  Lycia,  now  for  the  most  part  in  the  Nereid 
British  Museum  (Fig.  135).  It  dates  from  the  end  of  Monument 
the  fifth  century  B.C.  The  upper  part  was  a  peripteral  Ionic  temple, 
with  four  columns  at  the  front  and  six  on  the  side.  Decoration 
and  sculpture  were  important  features  in  the  appearance  of  the 

GREEK  ARCH. —  12 


FlG.  135.  —  Nereid  monument.     (Durm,  Baukunst 
der  Griechen,  Fig.  257.) 


178  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

monument,  for  there  are  three  rich  friezes,  one  of  which  was  ap- 
parently in  the  entablature  above  the  columns,  and  the  others 
arranged  on  the  podium,  and,  moreover,  free  sculptured  figures 
stood  between  the  columns  (see  p.  249). 

The  most  magnificent  of  Greek  storied  structures  was  the 
Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  erected  for  the  local  ruler 
Mausolus.  It  was  probably  begun  before  his  death 
(353  B.C.),  but  was  continued  by  his  wife  Artemisia. 
Pythius,  the  designer  of  the  temple  of  Athena  at  Priene,  and  Saty- 
rus  were  the  architects,  and  the  sculptured  decorations  were  in- 
trusted to  the  best  Greek  sculptors,  with  Scopas  at  their  head 
(see  p.  263).  The  restoration  of  this  monument  (which  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Knights  of  St.  John  in  1522  A.D.)  has  long  been  a 
favorite  problem.  Fortunately  the  general  scheme  and  the  ap- 
proximate measures  of  the  principal  masses  are  fairly  well  deter- 
mined by  combination  of  the  existing  remains  with  the  information 
derived  from  Pliny  and  Vitruvius.  The  building  consisted  of  four 
chief  parts  :  a  base  or  podium  forty-two  Greek  feet  high,  supporting 
an  Ionic  peristyle  also  forty-two  Greek  feet  high,  which  in  turn  was 
surmounted  by  a  pyramid  of  the  same  height,  and  the  whole  was 
crowned  by  a  quadriga  fourteen  and  a  half  Greek  feet  high.  The 
total  height  was  then  about  140  Greek  feet.  The  podium,  which 
was  rectangular  in  plan,  measured  less  on  the  eastern  and  western 
sides  than  on  the  others,  and  had  a  perimeter  of  440  Greek  feet. 
A  sculptured  frieze  and  a  protecting  cornice  crowned  this  part  of 
the  building.  Pliny  states  that  there  were  thirty-six  columns,  and 
it  is  now  generally  accepted  that  nine  of  these  stood  on  each 
shorter,  and  eleven  on  each  longer,  side.  The  bases  were  of  the 
Asiatic  type,  and  the  lower  diameter  of  the  columns  measured  3  ft. 
7  in.,  the  intercolumniation  10  ft.  2  in.  Authorities  differ  as  to 
whether  there  was  a  frieze  above  the  architrave  or  not.  The  peri- 
style was  covered  with  a  stone  coffered  ceiling.  Within  the  peristyle 
was  a  structure  which  looked  like  the  cella  of  a  temple  and  carried 
the  weight  of  the  pyramid.  The  steps  of  the  pyramid  numbered 
twenty-four,  each  a  Greek  foot  in  height,  and  below  the  pyramid 


ARCHITECTURE  179 

was  a  podium,  while  at  the  top  there  was  a  pedestal  to  carry  the 
quadriga.  This  crowning  feature  consisted  of  a  four-horse  chariot, 
in  or  beside  which  two  colossal  statues,  ten  feet  high,  of  Mausolus 
(see  Fig.  193),  and  Artemisia,  may  have  stood.  Many  statues  and 
at  least  three  distinct  sculptured  friezes  decorated  the  peristyle 
and  the  podium,  and  fragments  of  colossal  lions,  which  may  have 
stood  upon  the  main  cornice,  were  also  found.  Such  was  the 
beauty  and  impressiveness  of  the  whole,  that  it  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was,  without  doubt,  one 
of  the  most  important  works  of  Greek  architecture  in  the  fourth 
century,  uniting  in  its  design  the  pyramidal  stepped  structures  of 
the  East  with  the  pillared  temples  of  Greece.  In  the  time  of  the 
Roman  Empire  the  same  motive  appears  in  the  "  Mausoleums " 
of  the  Caesars. 

THE  HELLENISTIC  PERIOD* 

The  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  wrought  great  changes  in 
the  political,  social,  economic,  and  artistic  life  of  the  Greeks.  The 
rulers  of  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Egypt  were  henceforth  Greeks, 
and  Greek  art,  science1,  and  language  spread  over  all  western  Asia. 
Greek  architecture,  an  architecture  of  the  column  and  the  lintel, 
was  confronted  with  the  new  task  of  giving  beautiful  exteriors  to 
massive  oriental  structures,  and  the  consequent  blending  of  styles 
produced  a  result  that  was  rich  and  brilliant  in  effect.  The  storied 
structures  were  more  fully  developed,  and  although  details  became 
coarse  and  hard,  their  defects  were  partially  hidden  by  free  use  of 
color,  rich  ornamentation,  and  new  building  materials.  The  fine 
artistic  feeling  of  the  classical  period  was  replaced  by  a  love  of 
luxury  and  splendor,  which  found  encouragement  and  expression 
in  the  rich  feasts  and  pageants  of  the  time. 

The  new  spirit  in  building  was  most  clearly  expressed  in  the 

1  Some  of  the  buildings  mentioned  in  previous  sections,  e.g.  the  Thersilion 
at  Megalopolis,  the  Bouleuterion  at  Miletus,  the  round  building  and  the 
propylaea  at  Samothrace,  and  the  Serapeum  at  Alexandria,  are  of  Hellenistic 
date,  but  were  cited  as  examples  of  their  several  types. 


i8o  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

founding  of  cities,  particularly  commercial  cities.  Streets,  markets, 
and  public  buildings  were  carefully  laid  out,  and  well-planned  water 
supplies  and  drainage  systems  were  installed.  The  rulers  of  these 
cities  vied  with  each  other  in  building  stoas,  markets,  residences, 
gymnasia,  and  temples.  The  leading  city,  and  a  model  for  still 
newer  foundations,  was  Alexandria.  Situated  on  a  large  harbor  at 
the  mouth  of  a  navigable  channel  that  led  to  the  Nile,  and  com- 
manding the  trade  of  Egypt,  this  city  soon  became  the  most  im- 
portant port  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  and  remained  so  until 
far  into  the  Middle  Ages.  During  the  Hellenistic  period,  Alex- 
andria, the  favored  residence  of  the  Ptolemies,  became,  in  ad- 
dition to  its  commercial  importance,  a  most  influential  centre  of 
literature,  science,  and  art. 

Next  to  Alexandria  in  importance  was  perhaps  Antioch,  founded 
(300  B.C.)  by  Seleucus  Nicator.  It  lay  on  the  Orontes,  and  the  trade 
between  Antioch  and  the  West  passed  through  Seleucia  Pieria. 
Antioch  grew  rapidly,  and  even  in  the  last  days  of  Roman  rule  it 
was  still  one  of  the  busiest  and  most  populous  cities  of  the  Old 
World.  Syracuse  was  still,  as  in  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries,  the 
greatest  Greek  city  of  the  West.  On  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
Pergamon,  Ephesus,  Priene,  and  Miletus  were  all  very  important. 
The  island  of  Samothrace,  long  celebrated  for  its  religious  myster- 
ies, was  particularly  favored  by  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Macedonian 
rulers,  and  many  were  the  gifts  they  lavished  upon  it.  Delos  be- 
came, after  the  conquests  of  Alexander,  the  seat  of  a  flourishing 
commerce,  and  here  various  large  buildings  were  erected  during 
this  period.  Finally  the  island  of  Rhodes  should  be  mentioned, 
an  important  commercial  centre  in  Roman  times  and  a  centre 
of  art  noted  more  for  its  sculpture  than  for  its  architecture  or 
painting. 

Athens  was  no  longer  the  home  of  original  and  independent  art, 
but  visitors  still  flocked  to  see  the  magnificent  monuments  of  her 
former  greatness,  and  foreign  princes  enriched  her  with  their  gifts. 
The  long  list  of  patrons  begins  with  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of 
Egypt  (284-246  B.C.),  who  founded  a  gymnasium  and  a  library. 


ARCHITECTURE  181 

Three  kings  of  Pergamon — Attalus  I,  Eumenes  II,  and  Attalus  II  — 
beautified  the  city  in  various  ways.  The  Syrian  monarch  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.)  undertook  the  completion  of  the 
Olympieum,  though  it  was  not  actually  finished  until  the  time  of 
Hadrian.  In  the  Roman  period,  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus  were 
friendly  to  Athens,  and  later  Roman  emperors  followed  their  ex- 
ample. But  the  buildings  which  date  from  after  the  Roman  (or 
even  the  Macedonian)  conquest  hardly  seem  to  be  the  genuine 
products  of  Athenian  genius. 

The  most  important  architectural  advance  of  the  Hellenistic 
period  was  in  the  extensive  use  of  the  arch.  There  are  examples 
of  Greek  arches  as  early  as  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries B.C.,  and  indeed  the  arch  is  latent  in  some  of  the 
doorways  of  far  earlier  times.  The  arched  passage  through  the 
podium  of  the  propylaea  at  Samothrace  (p.  158)  was  built  under 
Ptolemy  II  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  and  an  arched  window  in  the 
assembly  hall  at  Priene  not  far  from  200  B.C.  At  Athens  the  rear 
wall  of  the  stoa  of  Eumenes  (197-159  B.C.),  164  m.  (538  ft.)  long, 
was  formed  by  a  series  of  cut  stone  arches  in  front  of  the  retaining 
wall  that  supports  the  upper  terrace.  These  arches  are  all  con- 
structed with  voussoirs,  and  were  in  the  first  two  cases  plainly  visible. 
There  is,  however,  as  yet  no  sufficient  evidence  for  the  combina- 
tion of  the  architrave  and  the  arch,  which  is  one  of  the  most  strik- 
ing features  of  Roman  architecture,  as  seen,  for  example,  in  the 
Coliseum  at  Rome.  Furthermore  there  is  no  proof  that  the  vault 
was  used  in  Greek  times  as  a  ceiling  to  cover  large  spaces ;  the 
vaulting  of  the  Basilica  of  Constantine  at  Rome  and  kindred 
structures  was  a  product  of  the  engineering  ability  of  a  later  age. 

The  city  of  Pergamon,  owing  to  the  rich  results  of  the  excava- 
tions carried  on  by  the  Germans,  deserves  especial  attention.    Al- 
though it  owed  its  importance  chiefly  to  its  role  of  per  am 
mediator  between  Rome  and  the  Asiatic  kingdoms,  the  great ' 
its  art  was  purely  Greek.     The  citadel  was  a  strong-  altar 
hold  situated  on  a  high  hill  between  two  streams,  and  the  city  ex- 
tended down  the  western  slope  to  the  plain.     It  is  the  citadel 


182 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


which  has  thus  far  chiefly  attracted  the  excavators.  It  comprised 
five  terraces  supported  by  great  retaining  walls,  and  on  each  ter- 
race was  an  important  building.  The  two  upper  terraces  were 
adorned  with  temples  of  the  Roman  period,  which  probably  oc- 
cupied the  sites  on  which  the  royal  palaces  had  stood  when  Per- 
gamon  was  independent.  On  the  middle  terrace  was  an  earlier 
temple  of  Athena,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  porticoes.  It  was 
a  peripteral  Doric  temple,  with  six  columns  on  the  front  and  ten 

on  the  sides,  the  slen- 
der proportions  of 
which  proclaim  their 
late  date  (second  cen- 
tury B.C.).  Below  this 
terrace  lay  the  great 
altar  of  Zeus  and  Athe- 
na (Fig.  136)  erected 
by  Eumenes  II  (197- 
159  B.C.)  to  commem- 
orate the  Pergamene 
victories  over  the  Ga- 
latians.  Its  lower  part 
was  a  solid  podium  or 
platform  fifteen  feet 


FIG.  136. —  Great  altar  at  Pergamon.    (Schrader, 
Sitzb.  Berl.  Akad.  1899,  p.  620.) 


high,  measuring  34.60 
m.  by  37.70  m.  (about 
113^  ft.  by  i23|  ft.), 
with  a  broad  flight  of  twenty- four  steps  let  into  its  western  side 
(Fig.  137).  Upon  this  podium  stood,  in  beautiful  contrast  to  its 
solid  mass,  an  Ionic  portico,  which  surrounded  the  altar  proper 
on  three  sides  and  projected  at  each  side  of  the  steps.  The  col- 
umns of  the  stoa  were  on  the  outer  side  ;  the  inner  side,  toward 
the  altar  proper,  was  a  solid  wall,  decorated  with  a  small  frieze  of 
sculptured  reliefs  (p.  286).  The  colonnade  across  the  front  had  a 
row  of  piers  behind  it,  and  over  all  the  colonnades  was  a  coffered 
marble  ceiling.  The  faces  of  the  podium  were  adorned  with  a 


ARCHITECTURE 


183 


FlG.  137. —  Great  altar  at  Pergamon.     {Ergebnisse  der  Ausgrabungen  zu 
Pergamon,  Vol.  Ill,  PI.  19.) 

continuous  frieze  of  almost  colossal  figures,  representing  the  com- 
bat of  the  Gods  with  the  Giants  (p.  284). 

Of  the  sacrificial  altar  itself,  which  stood  on  the  centre  of  the 
podium  at  Pergamon,  unfortunately  little  is  left,  but  enough  data 
exist  to  give  us  a  good  idea  of  the  nature  of  such 
altars.  At  Olympia  the  altar  of  Zeus  was  of  consider- 
able size,  and  the  accumulation  of  ashes  and  remains  of  bones  had 
raised  a  high  mound.  Pausanias  (V,  13,  8)  states  that  this  altar 
consisted  of  two  parts  —  the  place  where  the  animals  were  slain 
and,  on  a  higher  level,  the  hearth  of  ashes  on  which  the  carcasses 
were  burned.  This  general  arrangement  appears  in  all  large  sac- 
rificial altars.  The  largest  known  is  that  built  at  Syracuse  by 
Hieron  II  in  the  third  century  B.C.  It  was  199.07  m.  (about 
653  ft.)  long  and  22.51  m.  (about  74  ft.)  wide.  Of  the  width 
over  two  thirds  was  occupied  by  the  hearth  and  less  than  one 
third  by  the  place  for  the  sacrificial  slaughter.  The  great  size  of 
this  altar  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  no  less  than  450  oxen  were 
annually  sacrificed  at  one  time  to  commemorate  the  expulsion  of 
the  tyrant  Thrasybulus  and  that  the  sacred  ashes  were  kept. 
This  altar  had  apparently  no  sculptured  decoration.  Another 
important  altar,  at  Magnesia,  near  the  temple  of  Artemis,  meas- 


1 84  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

ured  23.10  m.  by  15.90  m.  (about  75  ft.  by  52  ft.),  and  was  even 
higher  than  the  altar  at  Pergamon.  Like  that  great  altar,  it  was 
decorated  with  reliefs. 

A  proof  of  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  age,  and  of  Alex- 
andria in  particular,  was  the  Pharos,  a  famous  lighthouse  on  the 
island  of  the  same  name,  which  lay  in  front  of  the 
harbor  of  Alexandria.  It  was  begun  in  229  B.C.  by 
Sostratus  of  Cnidus,  and  was  reckoned  among  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  Ancient  coins  represent  it  as  a  tapering  tower,  composed 
of  many  stories,  each  slightly  in  recess  of  the  one  below.  At  the 
top  was  the  lantern,  surmounted  by  a  bronze  statue  of  Pharia. 
Within,  a  stair,  built  about  a  central  well,  ascended  to  the  lantern. 
The  total  height,  as  calculated  from  ancient  and  Arabic  descrip- 
tions, was  no  m.  (about  360  ft.)  and  its  base  25  m.  (about  82  ft.) 
square.  The  Pharos  stood  until  1477  or  1478  A.D.,  when  a  fort 
was  built  of  its  stones. 

The  increased  love  of  splendor  and  the  greater  complexity  of 
life  which  characterize  the  Hellenistic  period  are  especially  no- 
ticeable in  the  increased  development  of  the  portico 
or  stoa.  The  Greeks  had  always  spent  their  days  for 
the  most  part  in  the  open  air,  but  protection  from  rain,  wind,  and 
sun  was  afforded  in  ever  increasing  measure  by  porticoes,  which 
were,  in  the  Hellenistic  period,  often  erected  at  the  expense  of 
some  princely  benefactor.  Great  two-aisled  porticoes  lay  to  the 
east  and  south  of  the  Aids  at  Olympia  (Fig.  no).  At  Samothrace 
there  was  a  portico  100  m.  (328  ft.)  long,  and  a  portico  at  Corinth 
was  even  somewhat  longer.  At  Pergamon  the  temple  terraces  were 
surrounded  by  colonnades  on  three  sides,  so  that  only  the  side 
toward  the  terrace  wall,  which  was  also  the  side  that  commanded 
the  view  over  the  city  and  the  valley,  was  left  open.  The  por- 
ticoes about  the  temple  of  Athena  (Fig.  138)  had  two  stories,  with 
an  interesting  arrangement  of  the  orders  :  the  lower  order  was 
Doric,  with  four  metopes  between  the  axes  of  the  columns;  the 
upper  order  was  Ionic,  with  an  entablature  in  which  Doric  and 
Ionic  elements  were  combined,  for  the  architrave  had  the  fascia 


ARCHITECTURE 


185 


of  the  Ionic  order,  while  the  frieze  had  triglyphs.  Between  these 
upper  columns  were  barriers  decorated  on  the  outside  with  reliefs 
representing  armor.  The  north- 
ern portico,  which  was  deeper 
than  the  others,  required  a  row 
of  central  supports,  and  these 
consisted  of  columns  with  round, 
bell-shaped  capitals.  Thus  three 
orders  were  used  in  the  same 
building,  the  date  of  which  is 
the  second  century  B.C. 

At  Athens  there  is  another 
interesting  stoa,  which  was  built, 
as  an  inscription  on  the  lower 
architrave  records,  by  Attalus 
II  of  Pergamon  (159-138  B.C.), 
probably  as  some  sort  of  a  mar- 
ket. Like  the  usual  portico  it 
had  two  aisles,  but  in  addition 
it  had  at  the  back  a  row  of 
twenty-one  storerooms  of  va- 
rious sizes,  perhaps  for  the  stor- 
age through  the  night  of  goods 
which  were  exposed  for  sale 
during  the  day.  On  the  ends  of 
the  building  were  extensions,  the  southern  one  of  which  is  thought 
to  have  contained  stairs  leading  to  the  upper  floor.  The  total  length 
of  the  stoa  was  110.75  m.  (about  363  ft.),  its  width  12.50  m. 
(about  41  ft.),  and  its  height  10.65  ra-  (about  35  ft.).  The  lower 
order  was  Doric,  of  slender  proportions,  the  height  of  the  columns 
being  7^  times  their  lower  diameter.  Such  slender  columns  would 
admit  much  light,  and  would  occupy  little  space.  The  columns  of 
the  interior  ranged  with  every  second  column  of  the  facade  and 
had  bell-shaped  capitals,  like  those  of  the  interior  order  of  the 
northern  stoa  on  the  terrace  of  Athena  at  Pergamon.  The  upper 


FIG.  138.  —  Stoa  at  Pergamon.  (Ergeb- 
nisse  der  Ausgrabungen  zu  Per- 
gamon, Vol.  II,  p.  35.) 


i86 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


order  was  Jonic  and  of  less  importance  than  the  lower.  Between 
the  columns  of  this  upper  order  were  barriers  of  marble,  decorated 
with  a  crossbar  pattern.  The  almost  elliptical  plan  of  the  upper 
columns  of  stoas  in  general  (Fig.  139)  is  interesting,  as  it  kept  the 


FlG.  139.  —  Stoa  at  Assos.     (Bacon,  Investigations  at  Assos,  p.  45.) 

apparent  diameter  of  the  column,  as  seen  from  the  front,  in  the 
right  proportion  to  the  height,  and  yet  permitted  the  use  of  an 
architrave,  the  soffit  of  which  did  not  look  too  thin  for  the  crown- 
ing feature  of  the  building  considered  as  a  whole.1 

1  Figure  139  gives  a  clear  idea  of  the  construction  of  a  typical  stoa,  that  at 
Assos.  A  stoa  similar  to  that  erected  by  Attalus  II  at  Athens  was  built  by  an 
Attalus,  perhaps  Attalus  I,  at  Tennessus,  in  Pamphylia. 


ARCHITECTURE  187 

Every  city  of  any  importance  had  an  agora,  or  open  market 
place,  such  as  one  sees  to-day  in  Italy  —  a  large  open  square  where 
business  of  all  kinds  was  carried  on.  At  Priene  and  Market 
Magnesia  the  agoras  were  surrounded  by  imposing  places 
stoas.  That  at  Priene  had  on  three  sides  porticoes,  behind 
which  were  shops,  and  on  the  fourth  side  a  portico  which  formed 
a  long  vestibule  for  a  number  of  public  buildings  behind.  The 
agora  at  Magnesia,  in  form  nearly  a  rectangle,  was  larger  than 
that  at  Priene,  measuring  97  m.  (about  318  ft.)  by  188.20  m. 
(about  617  ft.).  It  was  surrounded  by  marble,  two-aisled  por- 
ticoes, which  were  of  the  Doric  order  on  the  outside  and  of  the 
Ionic  order  within,  the  inner  columns  being  spaced,  as  usual,  to 
line  with  every  second  column  of  the  exterior  order.  There 
were  entrances  into  the  agora  on  the  southeast  and  southwest 
corners,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  eastern  side  was  a  propylaeum 
of  early  Roman  times,  which  gave  access  to  the  precinct  of  the 
temple  of  Artemis.  In  the  open  square  stood  a  temple  of  Zeus 
and  various  statues.  The  porticoes  surrounding  the  agora  had 
here,  as  elsewhere,  rooms  for  storage  purposes  behind  them. 

The  market  place  at  Assos  occupied  a  terrace  on  the  side  of  a 
steep  hill.  It  consisted  of  a  long  rectangle,  terminated  on  the 
west,  a  short  side,  by  a  small  temple  and  an  entrance  gate;  on 
the  east  by  the  Bouleuterion,  in  front  of  which  was  a  raised  plat- 
form, or  bema,  for  the  use  of  speakers.  On  the  northern  side 
stood  a  two-storied,  two-aisled  stoa,  111.50  m.  (365.83  ft.)  long, 
but  without  rear  rooms.  On  the  south  was  a  shorter  two-aisled 
stoa,  open  both  toward  the  agora  and,  perhaps  for  the  sake  of  the 
beautiful  view,  toward  the  lower  parts  of  the  city  and  the  sea 
(Fig.  140).  This  stoa  covered  a  bathing  establishment,  which  was 
entered  from  a  lower  level.  The  arrangement  of  this  agora  shows 
advantageously  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  Greeks  in  adapting 
their  architecture  to  the  demands  of  an  inclined  site.  In  some 
cases  such  sites  led  to  the  erection  of  structures  which,  when  seen 
from  a  lower  level,  appeared  to  have  three  stories ;  so  at  Perga- 
mon,  on  the  side  of  the  hill  of  the  acropolis,  where  there  was  a 


1 88 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


terrace  surrounded  by  two-storied  porticoes,  the  portico  farthest 
from  the  acropolis  appeared  as  a  building  of  three  stories  to 
those  who  approached  it  from  below. 


FIG.  140.  —  Agora  at  Assos.     (Bacon,  Investigations  at  Assos,  PI.  27.; 

The  open  spaces  in  Greek  cities  were,  especially  in  Hellenistic 
times,  adorned  with  monuments  of  various  kinds,  often  of  his- 
torical as  well  as  artistic  interest ;  porticoes  contained  statues  set 
in  niches  or  standing  between  the  columns,  and  their  walls  were 
sometimes  covered  with  inscriptions  carefully  cut  in  clear  and 
beautiful  characters.  The  arrangement  of  buildings  with  especial 
regard  to  their  architectural  and  natural  environment  is  also 
characteristic  of  this  period. 

The  private  houses  of  the  Greeks  are  far  less  well  known  than 
their  public  buildings.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  since  the 
walls  of  private  houses  were  often  built  of  wooden  framework 

Private  filled  in  with  sun-dried  brick,  their  remains  are  ex- 
houses  tremely  scanty.  Moreover,  public  life  was,  until  after 
the  conquests  of  Alexander,  much  more  highly  developed  than 


ARCHITECTURE 


189 


private  life.  Literary  evidence  tends  to  prove  that  the  houses 
of  the  early  periods  were  modest,  but  Demosthenes,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  complains  that  private  houses  were 
beginning  to  surpass  the  public  build- 
ings in  sumptuousness,  and  when  the 
Greeks  turned  from  public  to  private 
life  in  the  Hellenistic  period,  their 
houses  became  more  and  more  luxu- 
rious. A  few  remains  of  private  houses 
exist  at  Athens  and  elsewhere,  but  the 
best  are  at  Priene  and  on  the  island  of 
Delos,  those  at  Delos  being  chiefly  of 
Roman  date. 

At  Priene  the  houses  (Fig.  141)  are 
laid  out  in  almost  rectangular  blocks, 
measuring  about  35  m.  by  47  m.  (115 
ft.  by  154  ft.),  separated  by  narrow 
streets.  These  houses  present  to  the 
passer-by  almost  a  blank  wall,  pierced 


S    T    R    E    E 


FIG.  141.— House  at  Priene. 
(Wiegand  and  Schrader, 
Priene,  Fig.  298.) 


only  by  a  door  and  an  occasional  window  placed  well  up  above 

the  street  and  protected  by  bars 
or  shutters.  The  appearance  of 
the  streets  must  therefore  have  been 
somewhat  uninteresting.  Wfien  the 
houses  had  a  second  story,  the  up- 
per windows  were  probably  more 
numerous  and  larger.1  Within,  the 
houses  were  built  about  a  central 
court,  which  furnished  the  neces- 
sary light  and  air.  The  rooms  were 


T  T 


i 


FIG.  142. —  House  at  Delos.  (Borr- 
mann,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst, 
I,  Fig.  136.) 


grouped  about  the  court  in  various  ways,  doubtless  to  suit  the 
taste  of  the  owner. 

The  houses  recently  excavated  at  Delos  (iFig.  142)  are  even  more 

1  At  Pompeii  a  second-story  balcony  which  projected   over  the  street  is 
still  in  part  well  preserved. 


190 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


instructive  than  those  at  Priene.  The  courtyard  within  them  h 
not  central,  but  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  only  with  rooms,  one 
of  which  is  almost  invariably  of  ample  dimensions  and  provided 
with  three  doors  opening  from  the  court.  If  the  house  was  in  an 
important  street,  a  row  of  shops,  which  had  no  connection  with 
the  rest  of  the  house  and  were  let  separately,  would  occupy  the 
ground  floor  of  the  front.  The  walls  toward  the  retired  streets 
had  no  openings,  save  here  and  there  a  window  placed  at  a  con- 
siderable height  above  the  ground.  There  seem  to  have  been  no 
separate  quarters  for  the  women,  unless  they  were  relegated  to  the 
second  story.  Certainly  there  was  not  here,  as  there  was  at  Pom- 
peii and  Herculaneum,  a  separate  court  with  adjoining  rooms 
reserved  for  the  women. 


FIG.  143. —  House  of  Pansa  at  Pompeii.     (Overbeck,  Pompeii,  ed.  4,  p.  325.) 

At  Delos,  among  the  oldest  houses,  of  the  second  and  first 
centuries  B.C.,  besides  the  simple  peristyle  dwellings,  there  are 
more  stately  houses  with  peristyle  and  atrium.  This  style  the 
wealthier  Romans  adopted,  and  striking  examples  of  it  exist  at 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  (Fig.  143).  In  these  houses  the  street 
level  was,  as  a  rule,  retained  within.  To  the  right  and  left  of  the 


ARCHITECTURE  191 

entrance  were  a  porter's  lodge  and  a  stable  ;  beyond  was  an  atrium 
surrounded  by  small  rooms  for  the  unmarried  sons  and  the  slaves 
to  sleep  in  —  rooms  separated  from  the  atrium  by  curtains  only. 
At  one  corner  of  the  court  was  the  dining  room,  near  which  was 
the  kitchen.  The  master  received  business  calls  in  the  atrium. 
This  was  separated  by  a  strong  door  from  an  inner  peristyle,  open 
to  the  sky,  around  which  were  grouped  the  rooms  where  the 
matron  with  her  unmarried  daughters  and  the  slaves  lived  and 
worked.  Beyond  this  was  a  garden  surrounded  by  a  high  wall. 

At  Antioch  and  Alexandria  there  were  apartment  houses  of 
several  stories ;  but  such  buildings  are  characteristic  of  cities  of 
late  growth.  In  the  Museum,  at  Naples  are  several  frescoes  in 
which  houses  with  two,  and  even  three,  stories  are  represented. 

The  picture. of  a  Greek  house  would  not  be  complete  without 
some  mention  not  only  of  the  decorations  of  walls  and  floors, 
but  also  of  the  furniture  of  the  various  rooms.  The  walls  were 
adorned  with  sculptured  stucco  work,  with  painting  done  directly 
on  the  plaster,  and  with  a  combination  of  the  two.  Alcibiades 
is  said  to  have  employed  a  painter  to  decorate  the  interior  of  his 
house.  Sometimes,  in  the  Hellenistic  period,  above  a  smooth  base 
the  walls  were  painted  to  imitate  slabs  of  various  marbles.  Some- 
times the  upper  parts  of  the  walls  were  decorated  with  pilasters  or 
half  columns,  either  in  stucco  or  merely  painted,  which  appeared 
to  carry  a  cornice  or  a  complete  entablature  at  the  ceiling. 
Ceilings  also  began  to  receive  stucco  decoration  at  this  period, 
and  the  floors,  which  were  at  first  of  concrete,  were  often  laid 
with  mosaics,  which  took  the  form  sometimes  of  elaborate  pictures, 
sometimes  of  patterns  with  interesting  borders.  The  peristyles 
were  decorated  with  marble  benches,  works  of  sculpture  in  bronze 
and  marble,  fountains,  flowers,  and  shrubs.  Of  all  these  decora- 
tions Pompeii  furnishes  the  best  examples. 

There  were  several  small  shrines  in  the  house.  Generally  a 
Hermes  stood  outside  at  the  entrance.  Within  were  two  princi- 
pal shrines,  that  of  Zeus  Herkeios,  placed  in  the  men's  quarters, 
and  that  of  Hestia,  situated  in  the  important  room  of  the  house, 


192  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  main  dining  room.  Doors  were  fastened  by  locks  and  keys, 
some  examples  of  which,  found  at  Pompeii  and  now  in  the  Mu- 
seum at  Naples,  resemble  those  of  modern  times.  Sometimes 
storeroom  doors  were  sealed  with  the  master's  seal  for  additional 
security.  Window  glass  was  not  used  before  Roman  times,  and 
then  not  freely.  The  rooms  were  heated  by  open  fires,  the  smoke 
from  which  escaped  through  holes  in  the  roof.  Braziers  filled 
with  charcoal  were  also  used,  as  in  Italy  and  the  Levant  to-day. 
Lamps  of  metal  or  earthenware  were  lighted  at  night,  or  kept 
burning  in  dark  places. 

Greek  furniture  was  simple,  but  in  admirable  taste.  There  were 
chairs,  the  general  style  of  which  is  made  familiar  to  us  by  the 
bas-reliefs  and  vase-paintings  in  which  they  are  represented,  beds 
and  couches,  often  of  bronze  and  of  beautiful  turned  patterns, 
adjustable  tripods  for  tables,  chests  for  clothing,  sundials  and 
water  clocks  to  measure  the  flight  of  time,  earthenware  for  many 
purposes,  and  various  kitchen  utensils. 

In  the  architectural  sculpture  of  the  Hellenistic  period  the  ten- 
dency seems  to  be  toward  a  more  abundant  use  of  color  applied 
to  carved  ornament,  abandonment  of  the  honeysuckle  pattern  for 
scrolls,  and  a  broad,  flat  treatment  of  the  ornament  itself. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  Greek  architecture  when  the  Roman 
conquest  began.  The  Roman  architects  naturally  turned  for  their 
models  to  the  most  recent  achievements  of  Greek  art,  not  only 
because  they  were  nearest  to  the  Romans  in  date,  but  because 
they  were  best  suited  to  the  relatively  complex  Roman  civiliza- 
tion and  appealed  most  strongly  to  Roman  taste.  The  sump- 
tuous and  richly  ornamented  edifices  of  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
Pergamon,  and  Rhodes  were  the  prototypes  of  the  buildings 
of  imperial  Rome.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  Apollodorus,  who 
seems  to  have  set  his  stamp  upon  the  architecture  of  Trajan's 
time,  was  a  native  of  Damascus.  The  best  of  Roman  work,  in 
architecture  as  in  sculpture  and  the  other  arts,  was  undoubtedly 
executed  by  Greeks. 


CHAPTER   III 

SCULPTURE 
MATERIALS  AND  METHODS 

THE  sculpture  of  the  Mycenaean  age  is  preserved  to  us  in 
comparatively  few  specimens,  but  enough  to  show  that  consider- 
able technical  skill  and  artistic  power  had  been  attained.  Doubt- 
less some  monuments  survived  through  the  period  that  followed 
the  fall  of  the  Mycenaean  civilization,  and  these  may  have  served 
as  models  or  incentives  to  the  earliest  really  Greek  sculptors. 
Moreover,  Egypt  and  the  East  were  near  at  hand,  especially  to 
the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands.  The  earliest  Greek 
sculptors  were  therefore  not  obliged  to  develop  their  Beginnings  Of 
art  from  the  beginning  utterly  without  assistance,  and  Greek  sculp- 
it  is  not  without  reason  that  ancient  and  modern  ture 
writers  have  repeatedly  called  attention  to  the  influence  exerted 
by  Egypt  upon  the  earliest  Greek  art.  The  fact  that  many  early 
Greek  statues  stand  stiffly  erect,  with  one  foot  (almost  invariably 
the  left)  advanced,  in  precisely  the  attitude  chosen  by  Egyptian 
sculptors  for  statues  of  kings  and  other  persons,  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  proof  that  the  early  Greeks  learned  from  the  Egyptians, 
but  it  confirms  our  belief  in  what  is  a  priori  probable. 

Had  the  Mycenaean  civilization  left  no  monuments  in  Greece, 
and  had  the  peoples  of  Egypt  and  Asia  been  ignorant  of  the  art 
of  sculpture  in  stone  and  bronze,  it  might  be  assumed  that  the 
earliest  Greek  sculptors  worked  in  wood,  and  that  their  succes- 
sors advanced  from  wood  to  soft  stone  and  then  to  marble  and 
bronze.  But  such  an  assumption  takes  no  account  of  the  en- 
vironment of  the  earliest  Greek  sculptors.  Undoubtedly  many 

GREEK  AKCH. —  13  193 


i94  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

early  works  of  Greek  sculpture  were  of  wood.  This  is  expressly 
stated  by  Pausanias  and  other  ancient  writers,  and  wood  has 
been  from  the  earliest  times,  and  still  is,  a  common  material  for 
sculpture,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  all  the  earliest 
Greek  sculpture  was  of  wood  and  that  the  use  of  marble  and 
other  kinds  of  stone  was  a  later  invention.  As  soon  as  the 
Greeks  began  to  practise  the  art  of  sculpture,  stone,  as  well  as 
wood,  was  undoubtedly  used,  though  soft  stone  was  naturally 
preferred  to  marble  where  it  was  easily  obtained. 

The  wooden  statues  and  reliefs  have  disappeared,  being  made 
of  perishable  material,  and  undoubtedly  most  of  the  earliest 
works  of  sculpture  in  stone  have  also  been  lost,  but  these 
lost  works  were  probably  not  greatly  different  from  those 
that  have  been  preserved.  If  the  earliest  extant  works  show 
greater  technical  skill  and  higher  artistic  ambitions  than 
would  naturally  be  possessed  by  the  earliest  sculptors  of  a 
primitive  people,  the  explanation  is  to  be  sought  in  the  surround- 
ings of  the  Greeks —  especially  in  the  influence  of  Egypt — rather 
than  in  the  total  disappearance  of  a  whole  class  of  primitive 
wooden  sculpture.  The  period  between  the  fall  of  the  Myce- 
naean civilization  and  the  sixth  century  is  very  imperfectly 
known,  but  small  terracottas,  decorative  bronzes,  and  engraved 
gems  prove  that  various  forms  of  art  were  practised  in  Greece 
with  some  success  at  that  time.  Since  the  earliest  extant  works 
of  Greek  sculpture  are  not  earlier  than  the  seventh  century  B.C., 
it  is  probable  that  before  that  time  the  Greeks  worshipped  their 
gods  chiefly  in  the  form  of  symbols  and  unhewn  stones,  or  of 
beams  or  pillars  draped  with  real  drapery,  and  that  statues  were 
not  made  —  or,  at  any  rate,  were  unusual  —  until  after  700  B.C. 

The  material  of  the  earliest  sculpture  is  different  in  different 

places.     It  is  possible  that  in  some  places  wood  was  for  a  time 

the  only  material  in  use ;  but  if  that  was  the  case,  it 

was  due  to  local  causes,  and,  at  any  rate,  it  can  never 

be  proved.     In  Attica  the  earliest  extant  sculpture  is  of  the  soft 

limestone  from  Piraeus,  commonly  called  TTW/SIVOS  A<.'0os  by  the  an- 


SCULPTURE  195 

cients  and  "  poros  "  by  modern  writers  ;l  but  in  some  other  places, 
where  soft  stone  does  not  exist,  the  earliest  known  works  are  of 
marble.  At  Athens  "  poros"  was  superseded  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century  by  the  bluish  marble  of  Mt.  Hymettus  and  the 
upper  strata  of  Mt.  Pentelicus,  then  the  beautiful  white  Parian  mar- 
ble was  the  favorite  material  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  and  the 
first  half  of  the  fifth  century,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  the  white  marble  of  the  lower  strata  of  Mt.  Pentelicus 
came  into  general  use.  This  is,  in  spite  of  its  beauty,  a  less 
perfect  material  for  sculpture  than  the  finest  quality  of  Parian 
marble,  which  always  continued  to  be  most  highly  prized.  At 
all  times  and  in  all  regions  various  kinds  of  marble  and  other 
suitable  stone  were  used  in  the  places  near  the  quarries. 

The  early  sculptors  employed  simple  methods,  and  did  not, 
like  the  modern  artist,  mould  clay  models  to  be  transferred  to 
stone  by  a  system  of  points  and  careful  measurements. 
The  artist  of  a  relief  drew  the  outlines  of  his  figures 
on  the  front  of  a  slab  of  stone  and  then  chiselled  away  the  super- 
fluous material,  so  that  the  figures  remained  standing  forth  from 
the  background.  Naturally  no  figure  could  project  further  than 
the  original  surface  of  the  slab,  but  the  background  could  be  cut 
away  to  any  depth  less  than  the  total  thickness  of  the  stone.  The 
background  of  the  relief  was  therefore  not  necessarily  all  in  one 
plane,  as  it  generally  is  in  modern  reliefs,  which  are  made  from 
models  of  clay  moulded  on  a  flat  surface.  Since  the  early  re- 
liefs  were  always  colored,  2  the  carving  was  often,  as  in  Egypt, 
little  more  than  a  means  of  accentuating  the  outlines  and  suggest- 
ing the  shadows  of  the  composition.  The  earliest  works  are 
therefore  generally  in  low  relief. 

The  sculptor  of  a  statue  in  the  round  worked  by  a  method  simi- 
lar to  that  employed  in  carving  reliefs.  Taking  a  block  of  rec- 
tangular section,  he  drew  on  the  front  the  outline  of  the  figure 

1  The  term  "  poros  "  is  sometimes  loosely  employed  to  designate  almost  any 
Stone  not  marble.  • 

2  This  is  probably  true  of  all  Greek  reliefs. 


196  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

desired,  as  seen  from  the  front,  and  on  the  sides  the  outline  of 
the  side  view  of  the  same  figure.  Then  he  cut  away  the  stone  not 
included  in  these  outlines,  working  straight  in  until  the  cutting 
from  front  to  back  intersected  that  from  side  to  side.  He  then 
had  a  rough,  angular  statue,  which  he  finished  in  accordance  with 
his  ability.1  His  chief  tools  were  a  pointed  hammer,  or  a  pointed 
instrument  to  be  struck  with  a  mallet,  a  gouge  or  curved  chisel,  a 
claw  chisel,  and  files  and  sand  for  polishing.  Workers  in  soft  stone 
also  used  saws  of  various  kinds,  as  well  as  cutting  tools  that  were 
pushed  by  the  hand,  not  struck  with  a  mallet.  In  later  times 
drills  were  much  used,  especially  in  representing  hair  and  deep 
folds  of  drapery.  In  later  times,  too,  models  of  clay  or  plaster 
were  employed,  much  as  they  are  at  present,  but  this  practice 
was,  apparently,  not  introduced  until  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, and  probably  did  not  become  general  until  much  later. 

Statues,  as  well  as  reliefs,  were  regularly  colored,  the  extent  of 

the  coloring  depending  upon   the   kind  of  stone  employed  and 

also  upon  the  taste  of  the  period  to  which  a  given 

work  belongs.     Pure  white  statuary  did  not,  however, 

exist  at  any  period  in  Greek  art. 

Even  in  very  early  times  statuettes  and  small  reliefs  were  made 

of  bronze,  but  the  statuettes  were  cast  solid,  and  the  reliefs  were 

made  of  thin  plates  beaten  over  a  model  of  wood 

or  stone  (repousse)  and  finished  with  a   sharp  tool. 

Neither  of  these  methods  is  desirable  for  statuary.     Solid  bronze 

statues  involve  too  great  a  waste  of  costly  material  and  are  likely  to 

crack  in  cooling,  and  although  some  early  statues  were  made  of 

sheets  of  bronze  beaten  into  shape  over  a  wooden  core  and  fastened 

1  That  some  such  method  was  employed  is  clearly  seen  in  several  unfinished 
statues  in  the  National  Museum  at  Athens,  which  are  discussed  by  Professor 
E.  A.  Gardner,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies  1890,  pp.  129—142.  One  of 
these,  from  Naxos,  is  especially  instructive,  as  it  shows  a  comparatively  early 
stage  of  the  work.  A  similar  statue,  found  in  Attica,  is  published  by  Georges 
Nicole  in  Melanges  Nicole,  Geneva,  1905,  pp.  401-405.  The  same  scholar 
{Rev.  Archeol.  XI,  1908,  pp.  40-42)  regards  a  statuette  found  in  the  same 
region  as  a  rough  model  for  use  at  the  quarry. 


SCULPTURE  197 

together  with  rivets  ( sphyrelaton) ,  or  cast  in  separate  pieces  and 
welded  together,  these  were  disfigured  by  numerous  sutures  and 
must  have  lacked  strength.  But  after  the  Greeks  learned  to  make 
hollow  castings,  bronze  was  regarded  as  preferable  to  marble  for 
statues,  especially  for  those  that  were  to  stand  alone  in  the  open  air. 

The  art  of  bronze  casting  was  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
two  Samians,  Rhoecus  and  Theodorus,  who  lived  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  but  this  can  only  mean  that  they 
introduced  into  Greece  the  art  of  casting  statues  hollow,  an  art 
that  had  long  been  practised  by  the  Egyptians. 

To  make  a  solid  casting,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  make  a 
mould  and  run  the  molten  metal  into  it.  When  the  metal  has 
hardened,  the  mould  can  be  broken  and  removed.  Bronze  cast- 
But  if  a  hollow  casting  is  to  be  made,  an  inner  core,  inS 
as  well  as  an  outer  mould,  must  be  prepared,  and  the  bronze 
must  be  run  in  between  them.  This  is  now  ordinarily  accom- 
plished by  the  cire  perdue  (lost  wax)  process.  A  core  of  fire- 
proof material  is  made  of  the  shape  of  the  object  to  be  cast,  but 
slightly  smaller.  Over  this  a  coating  of  wax  is  applied,  and  in 
this  coating  the  details  of  the  work  are  carefully  executed.  Then 
a  coating  of  fireproof  material  is  carefully  applied  over  the  wax 
and  made  thick  and  strong  enough  to  serve  as  a  mould.  The 
whole  is  then  heated,  for  the  double  purpose  of  hardening  the 
mould  and  melting  the  wax,  which  runs  out.  The  hollow  space 
between  the  mould  and  the  core  is  then  filled  with  the  molten 
metal,  and  when  this  has  hardened  the  mould  and  core  are  re- 
moved, leaving  the  thin  shell  of  metal.  Substantially  this  process 
must  have  been  employed  by  the  ancient  bronze  casters. 

Some  ancient  statues  were  made  of  wood  incrusted  with  bronze,  and 
some  consisted  of  a  framework  of  wood  and  metal  incrusted  with 
plates  of  ivory  and  gold  (chryselephantine  statues). 
Some  statues,  too,  were  made  of  wood  with  the  heads, 
hands,  and  feet  of  marble  (acrolithic  statues).     Statuettes  were 
sometimes  made  of  silver  or  even  of  gold,  and  bronze  statues  were 
often  gilded. 


198  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

Works  of  sculpture  fall  naturally  into  two  classes  :  decorative 
sculpture,  designed  for  the  adornment  of  buildings  or  the  like,  and 

what  may  be  called  substantive  sculpture,1  designed 
Decorative 
and  substan-  without  special  reference  to  any  larger  whole.     Deco- 

tive  sculp-  rative  sculpture  is  for  the  most  part  carved  in  relief, 
though  in  many  instances,  notably  pediment  groups,  it 
consists  of  statues  carved  completely  in  the  round,  while  works  of 
substantive  sculpture  are  almost  exclusively  such  statues.  Decora- 
tive sculpture  is  strongly  influenced  by  its  architectural  or  other 
environment,  which  determines  the  space  to  be  decorated  and  the 
composition  of  the  groups  intended  to  fill  that  space.  In  these 
respects  it  resembles  decorative  painting.  Substantive  sculpture 
is  more  independent  of  space  relations.  Therefore  the  develop- 
ment of  the  two  classes  does  not  necessarily  proceed  with  equal 
rapidity  or  along  the  same  lines.  In  composition  especially,  deco- 
rative sculpture  is  naturally  much  influenced  by  painting,  while 
the  fact  that  substantive  sculpture  can  usually  be  seen  from  all  sides, 
while  decorative  sculpture  is  visible  only  from  the  front,  affects  the 
choice  of  attitudes,  the  representation  of  drapery,  and  still  more 
the  choice  of  subject  and  the  composition  of  groups.  Nevertheless, 
since  few  sculptors  limited  themselves  to  one  class  of  sculpture,  the 
progress  of  the  two  classes  was  on  the  whole  nearly  parallel.  They 
may,  therefore,  in  a  brief  sketch  like  this  be  treated  together. 


ARCHAIC  SCULPTURE 

The  earliest  Greek  statues  exhibit  three  main  types :  a  nude, 

standing,  male  figure ;  a  draped,  standing  figure,  usually  female  ; 

and  a  draped    seated    figure,   which    may   be  either 

male  or  female.     In  all   of  these  the  head  is  erect 

and  turned  neither  to  the  right  nor  the  left.     A  line  drawn  from 

the  crown  of  the  head  through  the  nose,  the  middle  of  the  breast 

bone,  and  the  navel  to  the  ground  divides  the  figure  into  exactly 

1  This  is  the  term  employed  by  Professor  Percy  Gardner,  in  his  Grammar 
of  Greek  Art,  London  and  New  York,  1905. 


SCULPTURE 


199 


equal  halves,  except  that  in  the  nude  figures  and  some  of  the  draped 
standing  figures  one  foot  is  somewhat  advanced.  Soon  the 
position  of  the  arms  offers  some  variety  ;  but  until  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century  the  "  law  of  frontality,"  which  precludes  any  twist- 
ing or  turning  of  the  body,  is  observed. 
This  is  characteristic  of  most  primitive 
statuary,  and  persists  in  Egyptian  sculpture 
throughout  its  entire  history. 

The  striking  similarity  in  attitude  of  the 
early  Greek  nude  statues  to  Egyptian  works 
has  already  been  mentioned ;  but  in  their 
entire  nudity  they  are  distinctly  Greek. 
We  do  not  know  what  each  particular 
statue  represents,  and  it  has  long  been  cus- 
tomary to  call  them  all  "Apollo."  Some 
examples,  found  at  the  temple  of  the  Ptoian 
Apollo,  in  Boeotia,  may  well  represent  the 
god,  but  others  have  been  found  in  ceme- 
teries, and  their  nudity  suggests  that  the 
type  may  have  been  originally  intended  to 
represent  athletes.  At  any  rate  it  is  impor- 
tant to  observe  that  from  the  very  beginning 
Greek  sculptors  represent  the  human  form 
entirely  nude,  thereby  forcing  themselves  to 
represent  it  undisguised  by  any  drapery 
that  might  hide  a  lack  of  truth  to  nature. 

An  exceptionally  fine  example  of  the  nude  FlG  I44._Apollo  of  Tenea. 
type  is  the  so-called  Apollo  of  Tenea  (Fig.  (Brunn-Bruckmann,  pi. 
144),  found  at  Tenea,  not  far  from  Corinth,  **' 
and  now  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich.  Many  other  examples  have 
been  found,  some  of  which  are  far  more  primitive  than  this.  The 
best  known  are  perhaps  the  "Apollos"  of  Thera,  Melos,  and  Orcho- 
menus  (in  Boeotia).  They  differ  from  one  another  in  proportions, 
in  the  knowledge  of  anatomy  displayed,  in  the  manner  of  represent- 
ing the  hair,  and  in  technical  execution ;  but  these  differences,  at 


200 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


least  in  the  earlier  specimens,  are  probably  due  to  the  varying  de- 
gree of  skill  and  knowledge  in  the  individual  artists,  rather  than  to 
different  schools  of  art.  The  "Apollo"  of  Tenea,  which  is  carved 
in  Pentelic  marble,  is  probably  an  Attic  work  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixth  century  B.C.  Its  proportions  are  unusually  slender,  the 
anatomical  details,  especially  in  the  rendering  of  the  knees,  show 
careful  study,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  give 
expression  to  the  face  by  raising  the  corners 
of  the  mouth.  From  this  type  of  figure  the 
famous  athlete  statues,  as  well  as  the  nude 
figures  of  deities,  of  later  times  were  devel- 
oped. 

A  very  primitive  example  of  the  draped 
standing  female  type  is  a  statue  found  at  Delos 
and  now  in  Athens  (Fig.  145).  An  inscription 
cut  on  its  left  side  states  that  it  was  dedicated 
to  Artemis  by  a  Naxian  woman  named  Nican- 
dra.  The  statue  is  a  long,  flat  block  of  marble, 
the  edges  of  which  are  rounded  off.  The  hair 
is  represented  as  spreading  to  right  and  left 
(resembling  a  well-known  Egyptian  headdress), 
so  that  the  head  has  somewhat  the  effect  of  a 
flattened,  truncated  cone.  The  features  are 
almost  utterly  obliterated.  The  arms  are  mere 
vertical  cylinders,  not  cut  free  from  the  body. 
Holes  in  the  hands,  if  hands  they  may  be 
ca^ed,  indicate  that  some  attributes,  doubtless 
of  metal,  were  added.  The  flat  shape  of  this 
figure,  which  resembles  a  thick  plank,  has  been 
regarded  as  an  indication  of  the  strong  influence  of  sculpture  in 
wood  upon  the  earliest  works  in  stone  ;  but  however  natural  the  plank 
or  squared  beam  may  seem  in  an  age  of  sawmills,  in  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  to  which  this  figure  must  be  assigned,  the  natural 
shape  of  a  log  of  wood  was  cylindrical.  In  extracting  stone  from 
a  quarry  it  is,  however,  generally  most  convenient  to  cut  roughly 


statue*Sfrom   Deios° 
(Brunn-Bruckmann, 


SCULPTURE 


2OI 


squared  blocks.  The  peculiar  shape  of  this  figure  is  therefore 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  primitive  sculptor  was  too  much 
influenced  by  the  original  shape  of  his  block  of  marble. 

The  so-called  Hera  from  Samos  (Fig.  146),  now  in  the  Louvre, 
is  a  work  of  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  and  was,  accord- 
ing to  its  inscription,  dedicated  to  Hera 
by  a  certain  Cheramyes.  It  exhibits  a 
roundness  as  remarkable  as  is  the  flat- 
ness of  the  Naxian  statue  from  Delos, 
and  has  for  that  reason  been  supposed 
to  show  the  influence  of  wooden  stat- 
ues carved  from  round  logs.  It  may 
possibly  be  an  imitation  in  marble  of 
an  ancient  wooden  figure  (xoanori), 
but  as  such  figures  were  probably  always 
clad  in  real  garments,  not  carved  as 
draped  figures,  the  style  of  the  drapery, 
at  any  rate,  can  hardly  show  the  influ- 
ence of  sculpture  in  wood.  Other 
monuments  indicate  that  the  peculiar 
roundness  of  this  figure  was  a  feature 
of  the  local  style  of  art,  which  may 
possibly  have  arisen  in  the  first  place 
from  a  habit  of  rounding  off  equally  all 
the  edges  of  a  squared  block  of  marble. 
A  series  of  statues  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, which  were  found  by  the  sacred 
way  that  led  from  the  sea  to  the  temple 
of  Apollo  at  Branchidae,  near  Miletus, 
illustrates  the  type  of  seated  draped  figure  (Fig.  147).  These 
statues  are  assigned  to  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  as  an  ap- 
proximate date,  though  some  are  evidently  earlier  than  others. 
They  exhibit  great  fulness  of  forms,  the  drapery  is  stiff  and  life- 
less, and  the  whole  effect  of  the  figures  is  heavy.  It  has  been 
justly  remarked  that  they  sit  as  if  they  never  could  rise.  The 


FlG.  146.  —  Hera  from  Samos. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  56.) 


2O2 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


effect  was,  however,  probably  better  when  the  statues  were  en- 
livened with  color.  The  same  general  type  is  represented  at  a 
more  advanced  stage  by  a  statue  of  Athena,  at  Athens,  with  which 

the  name  of  the  sculp- 
tor Endoeus  has  been 
connected. 

The  development  of 
early  sculpture  is  no- 
where SO  Early  Attic 
clearly  to  be  sculpture 
traced  as  at  Athens,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  after 
the  departure  of  the 
Persians,  in  479  B.C.,  the 
Athenians  levelled  and 
enlarged  the  surface  of 
their  Acropolis  and  used 
as  rubbish  for  filling,  in- 
stead of  earth,  which 
they  would  have  had  to 
carry  up  the  hill,  the 
statues  and  decorative 
sculptures  which  the 
Persians  had  injured.  In 


FIG.  147.  —  Sealed  figure  from  Branchidae. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  142  b.) 


this  way  the  works  of  sculpture  were  hidden  from  view  and  pre- 
served until  discovered  in  modern  times,  chiefly  in  1885  and  the 
following  years.  Perhaps  none  of  these  works  is  earlier  than  600 
B.C.,  and  none  can  be  later  than  480  B.C. 

One  of  the  earliest  pieces,  perhaps  the  very  earliest,  is  a  triangu- 
lar relief,  which  evidently  once  filled  a  pediment.  The  entire 
Sculpture  in  r'§n'  half  of  the  relief  is  occupied  by  the  sinuous  folds 
poros  stone  of  the  Lernaean  Hydra  ;  Heracles  in  the  centre  raises 
his  club  against  the  monster ;  and  behind  the  hero  are  his  horses 
and  chariot  and  his  faithful  companion  lolaus,  against  whom  a 
gigantic  crab  advances  from  the  extreme  left-hand  corner.  The 


SCULPTURE  203 

composition  is  extremely  simple  and  imperfect  in  its  utter  lack  of 
symmetry,  and  the  execution  is  rude  and  primitive.  The  outer 
surface  of  the  figures  is  flat  and  their  edges  insufficiently  rounded, 
apparently  not  worked  with  a  chisel,  but  cut  (in  part  at  least)  with 
a  saw  or  some  tool  like  a  knife.  Such  a  tool  might  well  have  been 
used,  as  the  stone  is  a  soft  variety  of  coarse  poros.  Sufficient 
color  still  remains  to  show  that  the  entire  relief  was  painted,  chiefly 
with  red,  blue,  and  green,  though  certain  parts  were  colored  dark 
brown  or  black,  and  an  additional  color  was  gained  by  allowing 
the  natural  hue  of  the  stone  to  appear  in  some  places.  The  color- 
ing was  conventional,  not  naturalistic ;  for  instance,  one  horse  is 
green  (perhaps  originally  blue). 

The  work  just  described  is  executed  in  low  relief.  Very  differ- 
ent in  this  respect  are  two  other  works  carved  of  a  better  and 
somewhat  harder  variety  of  poros.  These  once  adorned  the  pedi- 
ments of  the  Hecatotnpedon,  the  temple  of  Athena,  to  which 
Pisistratus  afterwards  added  a  peristyle.  The  reliefs  of  these  pedi- 
ments are  so  high  as  to  be  almost  carved  entirely  in  the  round. 


FIG.  148.  —  Three-bodied  Typhon,  Athens.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  456  a.) 

Half  of  one  of  the  pediments  was  occupied  by  a  threefold  mon- 
ster, generally  called  Typhon  (Fig.  148).  The  outer  (left)  shoulder 
of  the  first  and  the  inner  (right)  shoulder  of  the  third  human  body 
had  wings,  and  the  three  bodies  end  in  a  twisted  serpentine  tail. 
Another  half  of  a  pediment  was  occupied  by  a  representation  of 
Heracles  struggling  with  the  Triton,  half  man  and  half  fish.  Large 
parts  of  two  great  serpents  and  a  few  other  fragments  that  belonged 
to  these  pediments  are  preserved,  but  the  arrangement  of  the  sculp- 


2O4 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


tures  is  not  as  yet  certainly  determined.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  the  serpent  forms  are  well  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  pedi- 
ments and  make  the  task  of  composition  comparatively  simple.1 
The  work  of  these  reliefs  is  more  advanced  than  that  of  the 
Hydra  pediment,  and  the  effect  of  the  whole,  when  brightly  colored, 
chiefly  red  and  blue,  must  have  been  very  striking.  The  under 

side  of  the  projecting  cornice, 
above  the  pediments,  was  adorned 
with  conventional  lotus  patterns, 
between  which  were,  at  the  east- 
ern end,  eagles,  and  at  the  west- 
ern end,  storks,  all  in  very  low 
relief.  The  lotus  patterns  were 
brightly  colored  with  red  and 
blue,  and  the  birds  also  showed 
bright  colors,  at  least  in  part. 

Among  the  other  remains  of 
sculpture  in  poros  stone  found 
on  the  Acropolis  the  most  strik- 
ing are  two  groups  of  lions  pull- 
ing down  bulls.  In  these  great 
vigor  of  form  and  action  appears, 
and  in  spite  of  errors  in  anatomy 
and  in  some  details  the  works 
show  original  study  of  nature  and 
fresh  observation.  The  preva- 
lent qualities  of  these  early  Attic 
sculptures  are  force  and  vigor. 


FlG.   149.  —  Moschophorus,     Athens. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  6,  Ersatztafel.) 


The  same  qualities  are  seen  in 
the  first  works  of  Attic  sculpture 
in  marble,  which  show  also  in  technical  details  the  influence  of 
the  habit  of  working  in  the  softer  stone.  One  of  these  is  the  statue 

1  A  figure  of  Athena  enthroned,  facing  the  front,  and  one  of  a  bearded  god 
in  profile,  may  have  belonged  in  one  of  the  pediments,  but  may  perhaps 
equally  well  have  adorned  one  of  the  smaller  buildings  on  the  Acropolis. 


SCULPTURE 


205 


of  a  man  carrying  a  bullock  (moschophorus).  An  inscription  on 
the  base  of  this  work  states  that  it  was  dedicated  by  a  certain 
Bombos  (Kombos,  or  Rombos),  whom  it  represents  Sculpture  in 
bringing  a  bull  calf  as  a  sacrifice  (Fig.  149).  In  this  marWe 
way  his  piety  was  made  as  enduring  as  the  marble.  This  work 
and  a  few  others  that  exhibit  the  same 
qualities,  with  some  modifications,  be- 
long to  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  the  early  part  of  the  rule  of 
Pisistratus. 

Under  his  rule  and  that  of  his  sons, 
Athens  grew  to  greater  importance 
than  it  had  possessed  before,  and  the 
increasing  prosperity  of  the  city,  as 
well  as  the  taste  of  its  rulers,  attracted 
artists  of  all  kinds.  In  sculpture  the 
school  of  Chios  was  especially  flourish- 

Chian  m&>  arjd  many  works  by 
sculptors  Chian  sculptors  adorned 
the  Acropolis.  This  school  was  justly 
famous  for  the  care  and  delicacy  it 
displayed  in  the  elaboration  of  details, 
especially  in  the  representation  of  dra- 
pery, hair,  and  ornaments.  The  female 
figure  was  the  favorite  subject  for 
these  artists,  and  a  series  of  statues 
found  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  shows 
their  skill  in  the  treatment  of  marble 
and  the  charming  elegance  of  their  FIG.  150. -Statue  by  Antenor'?}. 

(AntikeDenkm<iler,l<P\.S3.) 

style,  which  was,  however,  already  be- 
coming conventional  and  somewhat  monotonous.  The  Attic 
sculptors  speedily  acquired  the  technical  skill  of  their  Chian  visit- 
ors, and  the  less  original  among  them  lost  the  strength  and  vigor 
of  the  earlier  Attic  school  and  imitated  the  Chian  work  in  its 
defects  as  well  as  in  its  good  qualities;,  but  the  stronger  natures, 


zo6  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

while  they  did  not  neglect  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  technical 
skill,  retained  the  old  Attic  vigor  and  dignity. 

An  example  of  an  Attic  work  under  Chian  influence  is  a  statue 
probably  by  Antenor,  an  artist  whose  date  is  approximately  fixed 
by  the  fact  that  he  made  statues  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton 


FlG.  151.  —  Early  Attic  pediment  sculpture.     (Wiegand,  Porosarchitektur  der 
Akropolls,  PI.  16.) 

after  Hippiaswas  expelled,  in  510  B.C.  This  statue  (Fig.  150)  ex- 
hibits greater  dignity  than  the  Chian  figures  of  the  same  general 
type,  with  no  less  technical  excellence  in  detail.  What  an  Attic 
sculptor,  who  had  studied  Chian  work  without  giving  up  his  native 
vigor  was  able  to  accomplish,  is  even  more  clearly  seen  in  the 


SCULPTURE 


207 


(perhaps  somewhat  earlier)  sculptures  from  the  pediment  of  the 
temple  of  Athena  as  enlarged  in  the  time  of  Pisistratus.  These 
are  not  reliefs,  like  the  sculptures  of  the 
earlier  pediments,  but  statues  carved  com- 
pletely in  the  round.  Of  the  entire  group, 
which  represented  the  combat  of  the  gods 
with  the  giants,  there  now  remain  the  figures 
of  Athena  and  three  fallen  giants,  twoof  which 
evidently  filled  the  corners  of  the  pediment. 
There  must  have  been  at  least  two  other  gods, 
probably  Zeus  and  Heracles.  Athena  occu- 
pied the  middle  of  the  pediment.  Her 
vigorous  pose  is  admirable,  and  the  details 
of  drapery,  hair,  and  the  like  are  finely  exe- 
cuted. As  restored  in  the  Acropolis  Mu- 
seum at  Athens,  the  central  group  in  the 
pediment  consists  of  Athena  and  a  fallen 
giant,  the  crest  of  whose  helmet  the  god- 
dess is  supposed  to  grasp  (Fig.  151).  Even 
if  this  be  not  entirely  correct,  the  composi- 
tion of  the  pediment  group  as  a  whole,  with 
the  two  fallen  giants  balancing  each  other 
in  the  corners,  is  decidedly  more  advanced 
than  that  of  the  earlier  sculptures  of  the 
same  temple  before  its  enlargement. 

The  gravestone,  or  stele,  of  Aristion, 
found  at  Velanideza  and  now  in  the  National 
Museum  at  Athens,  is  perhaps  the  most 
widely  known  example  of  Attic  relief  work 
of  the  last  years  of  the  sixth  century.  In 
this,  as  in  the  marble  figures  from  the 
Hecatompedon,  the  old  Attic  vigor,  here  FIG.  152.— Stele  of  Aris- 

,  .        ,.  tion.     (Photograph.) 

tempered  to  calm  dignity,  is  combined  with 

exquisitely  careful  workmanship  (Fig.  152).     The  traces  of  color- 
ing on  this  relief  are  especially  noticeable,  though  far  less  so  than 


208 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


when  it  was  found.     Evidently  the  pigment  was  applied  only  to 
hair,  beard,  eyes,  lips,  borders  of  garments,  ornaments,  and  the 

like,  —  not,  as  was  the  case  with 
the  poros  sculptures,  to  the  entire 
surface.  The  beauty  of  the  mar- 
ble was  appreciated,  and  was  not 
hidden  under  a  coat  of  paint. 
That  marble  statues  were  treated 
in  the  same  way  is  proved  by 
many  examples,  especially  by 
those  found  on  the  Acropolis  at 
Athens. 

Perhaps  the  most  attractive 
work  of  Attic  sculpture  before  the 
Persian  invasion,  and  certainly 
one  of  the  latest,  is  the  figure  of 
a  maiden,  dedicated  by  Euthy- 
dicus  (Fig.  153).  In  this  the 


FIG.  153. -statue  dedicated  by  Euthy-    beauty  of  the  sculptures  of  the 
dicus.    (Bmnn-Bruckmann,  PI.  459.)      Parthenon  is  foreshadowed.    The 

technical  execution,  careful  as  it 
is,  has  no  mannerism  :  the  eyes 
are  set  horizontally,  not  ob- 
liquely, as  in  the  Chian  works ; 
the  mouth  has  not  the  empty 
smile  dear  to  the  Chian  artists, 
but  an  expression  of  individu- 
ality; and  the  whole  head  is 
fuller  and  stronger  than  the 
heads  of  Chian  statues.  The 
marble  head  of  a  youth  in  Ath- 
ens (Fig.  154)  exhibits  qualities 
so  similar  to  those  of  this  figure 

that  it   has   been   regarded  as       FIG.  i54.-He»d,  Athens.    (Brunn- 
the   work   of  the   same    artist.  Bruckmann,  Pi.  460.) 


SCULPTURE 


209 


Be  this  as  it  may,  the  two  works  mark  the  height  that  Attic  sculp- 
ture had  attained  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion. 

The  early  sculpture  of  Athens  is  known  to  us  through  a  long 
series  of  works,  preserved,  though  in  a  more  or  less  fragmentary 
condition,  by  reason  of  the  enlargement  and  adornment  of  the 
Acropolis   after  the  havoc  wrought  by  the   Persians,    sculpture 
Such  a   combination  of  circumstances  is   not   found    outside  of 
elsewhere,  and  the  early  sculpture  of  other  places  is    Attica 
known  to  us  for  the  most  part  only  in  isolated  specimens.     But 
Athens  was  by  no  means  the   most  important  artistic  centre  in 
early  times.  The  legendary  Daed- 
alus   was,    to  be   sure,   in    after 
times  called  an  Athenian,  but  the 
chief  scene  of  his    activity  was 
Crete,  and  his  pupils,  Dipoenus 
and   Scyllis,  were   Cretans,  who 
practised  their  art  in  Crete,  the 
Peloponnesus,      and     elsewhere. 
Samos,  Ephesus,  and,  above  all, 
Miletus  were   important   centres 
of  artistic   production,   and   the 
part   played  by  Chian  artists  in 
the  development  of  Attic  sculp- 
ture shows  that  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century  the  Chian 
school  was  more  advanced  than 
that  of  Athens. 

The    earliest    Chian    sculptor 

known  to  us  by  name  is  Mikki- 

Chian       ades,  whose  son,  Ar- 

sculpture  chermus,  and  grand- 
sons, Bupalus  and  Athenis,  were 
also  sculptors.  The  last  men- 
tioned were  contemporaries  of  the 
poet  Hipponax,  about  540  B.C. 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  14 


FlG.  155.  —  So-called  Nike  of  Archer- 
mus,  from  Delos.  (Brunn-Bruck- 
raann,  PI.  36.) 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


Archermus  was  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  represent  Nike  ("Vic- 
tory) with  wings ;  and  a  statue  of  a  winged  female  figure  about 
two  thirds  the  size  of  life,  found  at  Delos  (Fig.  155),  may  actually 

be  the  work  upon  which 
his  claim  to  distinction  was 
based ;  for  a  pedestal,  bear- 
ing an  inscription  that  men- 
tions Mikkiades  and  Archer- 
mus, was  found  with  the 
statue.  Unfortunately  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  statue 
and  the  pedestal  belong  to- 
gether; but,  at  any  rate, 
the  winged  figure  shows  the 
qualities  of  the  Chian  schoo! 
at  the  time  of  Archermus. 
the  first  half  of  the  sixtt 
century  B.C.  Of  the  wings 
with  which  the  shoulders 
and  ankles  were  furnished, 
little  now  remains,  but  some 
small  bronzes  show  theii 
original  form.  The  goddess 
is  represented  in  rapid  mo- 
tion, her  knees  bent  in  run 
ning,  so  that  she  almosl 
seems  to  be  kneeling.  The 
legs  are  in  profile,  but  body 
and  head  are  in  full  face. 
FIG.  156.  — Statue  of  Chian  style,  Athens.  The  feet  did  not  touch  the 
(Brunn-Bruckmann.  PI.  458.)  ,  , 

ground,  but  the  goddess  was 

supposed  to  be  flying  through  the  air,  and  the  figure  was  really 
supported  by  the  drapery.  This  was  a  bold  and  striking  inven- 
tion. Perhaps  the  figure  was  intended  as  an  acroterion,  to  be 
placed  on  the  top  of  a  building.  The  work  is  careful  and  elabo- 


SCULPTURE 


211 


rate,  and  already  shows  some  signs  of  the  over-refined  delicacy 
seen  in  the  later  Chian  works  found  at  Athens  (Fig.  156)  and 
Delos.  In  the  end  this  excessive  refinement  and  care  in  details 
led  to  conventionalism  and  loss  of  power.  The  Nike  belongs  to 
the  earlier  time,  when  the  Chian  school  was  vigorous  and  inventive. 

A  primitive  specimen  of 
Naxian    sculpture    has    al- 

The  Islands  ready  (Fig.  145, 
and  Asia  p.  200)  been 
Minor  discussed,  and 

there  is  ample  proof  that  the 
art  of  sculpture  was  practised 
at  Naxos  throughout  the 
sixth  century.  The  seated 
statues  from  Branchidae 
(Fig.  147,  p.  202)  are  ex- 
amples of  Milesian  sculpture 
about  550  and  earlier,  and 
ancient  writers  bear  ample 
testimony  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  art  at  Miletus,  the 
greatest  of  the  Ionic  cities  in 
the  sixth  century.  From  Sa- 
mos  came  the  so-called  Hera 
(Fig.  146,  p.  201),  and  other 
monuments,  among  them  a 
standing,  draped  male  fig- 
ure, which  has  many  points 
of  resemblance  to  the  seated 
figures  from  Branchidae. 


FIG.  157.  —  Sculptured  drum  from  early 
temple  at  Ephesus.  (Brunn-Bruckmann, 
PI.  148.) 


At  Ephesus  the  temple  of  Artemis  was  destroyed  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixth  century,  and  rebuilt  with  great  magnificence.  The 
lower  part  of  its  columns  was  adorned  with  carved  reliefs,  for  which 
Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  furnished  funds  ;  and  enough  fragments  of 
these  reliefs  have  been  found  to  make  possible  a  partial  restora- 


212 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


tion,  in  the  British  Museum,  of  such  a  sculptured  column  (Fig.  157). 
The  work  is  fine  and  careful,  though  not  so  delicate  as  that  of 
the  Chian  works  found  at  Athens,  or  of  the  Attic  works  produced 
under  Chian  influence ;  the  forms  of  the  body  are  full  and  round,  but 
they  lack  the  vigor  of  such  early  Attic  works  as  the  Moschophorus. 
The  general  tendency  of  Ionic  art  to  roundness  of  form,  free- 
dom of  outline,  and  general  sumptuousness  of  effect,  rather  than 
to  careful  study  of  detail  or  to  athletic  vigor,  is  seen  in  the  reliefs 
of  several  Lycian  monuments,  the  most  famous  of  which  is  the  so- 
called  Harpy  Tomb,  now  in  the  British  Museum  (Fig.  158).  The 


FlG.  158. —  Relief  from  the  Harpy  Tomb.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  146.) 

meaning  of  these  reliefs  is  not  perfectly  clear,  but  they  are  appar- 
ently related  to  the  worship  of  the  dead  and  the  deities  of  the 
nether  world,  and  the  winged  figures  on  two  sides,  popularly  called 
Harpies,  are  probably  spirits  carrying  away  the  souls  of  the  deceased. 
The  monument  is  a  work  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century. 

In  the  last  years  of  the  sixth  century  the  Cnidians  erected  a 
treasury  at  Delphi  (Fig.  103,  p.  132)  and  adorned  it  with  sculptures. 
In  the  pediment  was  the  struggle  of  Apollo  and  Heracles  for  the 
sacred  tripod;  the  frieze  (Fig.  159)  represents  the  combat  of  the 
gods  with  the  giants,  an  assembly  of  gods,  and  a  procession  of 
chariots,  while  in  the  porch  two  figures  of  maidens  supported 
the  entablature.  These  works  of  developed  Ionic  sculpture  are 


SCULPTURE 


213 


FIG.  159.  —  Battle  of  gods  and  giants.     Treasury  of  the  Cnidians,  Delphi. 
(Fouilles  de  Delphes,  PI.  XIII-XIV.) 

beautiful  in  themselves,  and  are  especially  interesting  when  com- 
pared with  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  and  the  "  maidens  "  of  the 
Erechtheum,  works  of  the  greatest  period  of  Attic  sculpture,  nearly  a 
century  later.  The  influence  of  Ionic  sculpture  was  widespread,  and 
predominated,  with  local  shades  of  difference,  in  northern  Greece. 

Comparatively  few  monuments  of  early  sculpture  in  the  western 
Greek  colonies  and  conti- 
The  western   nental  Greece 

colonies  outside  of  At- 
tica are  preserved,  but 
among  them  are  some  of 
great  importance.  In  Sic- 
ily, among  the  ruins  of 
Selinus,  a  colony  of  Me- 
gara  Hyblaea,  which  was 
itself  a  colony  of  Megara 
in  Greece,  some  of  the 
sculptured  metopes  of  four 
temples  have  been  found. 
The  two  earliest  groups  of 
these  metopes  are  still 
crude  and  far  from  beau- 
tiful, though  they  testify  to 
conscientious  work  and,  in 


FIG.  160. —  Perseus  and  the  Gorgon.     Selinus. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  286  b.) 


the  metopes  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  (temple  C),  to  much  origi- 
nality and  great  ambition  on  the  part  of  the  sculptors  (Fig.  160). 


214  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

They  have,  on  the  whole,  more  resemblance  to  the  Attic  works  in 
poros  stone  than  to  other  works  of  Greek  art.  The  third  group 
(from  temple  F)  represents  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  the  giants, 
and  resembles  in  its  careful  study  of  the  attitudes  and  of  anatomy 
the  relief  representing  the  same  subject  which  adorned  the  treas- 
ury of  the  Megarians  at  Olympia.  Like  that  relief,  these  metopes 
are  probably  works  of  the  last  years  of  the  sixth  century.  They 
lack  the  ease  and  elegance  of  Ionic  sculpture,  but  are  more  vigor- 
ous and,  in  the  representation  of  the  human  form,  more  accurate. 
The  fourth  group  of  metopes  from  Selinus  belongs  to  the  period 
after  the  Persian  invasion. 

Although  ancient  writers  mention  works  by  several  early  artists 

in  Laconia,  the  extant  remains  of  early  Laconian  sculpture  are 

Pelopon-     limited  almost  entirely  to  a  few  reliefs,  which  seem  to 

nesus  show  that  it  was  not  distinguished  for  grace  or  beauty. 
The  reliefs  are  carved  in  flat  planes,  divided  by  sharp  edges.  If, 
as  may  be  the  case,  they  are  works  of  the  fifth  century,  Laconian 
sculpture  was  inferior  to  that  of  most  of  the  neighboring  regions. 

Literary  tradition  mentions  Argos,  Sicyon,  and  Aegina  as  the 
chief  centres  of  art  in  the  Peloponnesus  in  the  sixth  century. 
A  rather  clumsy  nude  statue  signed  by  the  Argive  Polymedes, 
found  at  Delphi,  is  an  assured  example  of  Argive  sculpture  about 
the  middle  of  the  century,  but  Polymedes  was  probably  not  one 
of  the  best  sculptors  at  Argos  in  those  days.  We  can  therefore 
say  little  about  Argive  sculpture  in  the  sixth  century,  except  that 
it  probably  resembled  the  sculpture  of  Sicyon  and  Aegina.  The 
"Apollo"  of  Tenea  (Fig.  144,  p.  199)  is  of  Pentelic  marble,  and 
may  be  Attic  work,  though  it  shows,  in  its  careful  attention  to  finish 
and  to  anatomical  detail,  some  of  the  qualities  which  seem  to  have 
distinguished  Canachus,  the  chief  sculptor  of  Sicyon  toward  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century.  He  was  a  worker  of  bronze,  and  made 
a  famous  statue  of  Apollo  for  the  temple  at  Branchidae,  represent- 
ing the  god  nude  and  holding  a  deer  in  his  hand.  The  deer  was 
so  balanced  that  if  one  pushed  it,  it  rocked  on  its  feet,  so  that 
a  thread  could  be  drawn  under  them.  The  general  appearance 


SCULPTURE 


2I5 


of  the  statue  is  known  from  small  bronzes  (see  p.  331)  and  a  late 
marble  relief,  but  its  chief  merit  was  doubtless  in  precision  of 
detail  and  excellence  of  finish,  rather  than  in  novelty  of  pose. 

The  Aeginetan  school,  the  chief  member  of  which  was  Onatas, 
was,  like  the  schools  of  Argos  and  Sicyon,  famous  chiefly  for 
works  in  bronze.  Of  these  nothing  remains  (unless  perhaps  a 
fine  bronze  head  in  Athens  may  be  Aeginetan  work),  but  the 
marble  figures  from  the  pediments  of  the  temple  of  Aphaia,  at 
Aegina,1  enable  us  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  Aegine-  Aegina 
tan  sculpture.  These  figures  are  now,  with  the  exception  of  some 
fragments  found  in  1901,  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich.  They 
were  discovered  in  1811  and  were  restored,  not  altogether  cor- 
rectly, by  Thorwaldsen.  The  groups  in  the  two  pediments  were 
not  by  the  same  artist,  though  they  are  of  the  same  date.  In 
general  character  they  are  similar,  but  the  artist  of  the  eastern 
pediment  was  more  advanced  than  his  competitor  or  co-worker. 
Much  more  is  preserved  from  the  western  than  from  the  eastern 
pediment.  In  the  centre  of  each  stood  Athena,  wearing  a  long 
chiton,  her  aegis,  and  her  helmet.  About  her  are  groups  of 
fighting  warriors.  In  the  eastern  pediment,  Heracles  is  recog- 
nized in  the  figure  of  a  kneeling  archer  who  wears  a  lion's  head 
as  a  helmet.  The  scene  is  here,  doubtless,  the  first  siege  of  Troy, 


FlG.  161. —  Western  pediment,  Aegina,  restored.      (Furtwangler,  Aigina,  p.  206.) 

and  in  the  western  pediment  the  later  and  more  famous  Trojan 
War  is  represented  (Fig.  161).  No  doubt,  some  of  the  com- 
batants are  Aeginetan  heroes,  but  they  cannot  be  identified  with 

1  Called  at  one  time  the  temple  of  Zeus   Panhellenius  and  for  many  years 
the  temple  of  Athena.     The  ascription  to  Aphaia  is  not  absolutely  certain. 


2l6 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


certainty.  In  the  western  pediment  were  twelve  figures  besides 
Athena;  in  the  eastern  at  least  ten,  arranged  in  small  groups. 
At  the  same  time  the  arrangement  was  strictly  symmetrical,  each 
group  and  each  figure  on  one  side  of  the  centre  corresponding 
to  one  on  the  other.  In  the  corners  were  fallen  warriors.  Many 
details  and  accessories  were  once  brilliantly  colored,  but  the 
beauty  of  the  marble  was  not  hidden  by  large  surfaces  of  paint, 
unless  it  be  that  the  whole  of  Athena's  garment  was  red. 


FIG.  162. —  Figure  from  eastern  pediment,  Aegina.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  28.) 

The  statues  are  remarkable  for  their  careful  modelling,  the 
boldness  of  their  attitudes,  and  the  athletic  vigor  of  their  forms. 
The  limbs  are  perhaps  too  long,  and  there  are  some  inaccuracies 
in  anatomy,  though  these  are  slight,  and  in  general  the  study  of 
anatomy  is  especially  noticeable.  In  the  western  pediment  the 
faces  have  a  meaningless  smile,  like  that  of  the  te  Apollo "  of 
Tenea,  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  eastern  pediment  (Fig.  162). 
Both  groups  are  remarkable  for  truth  to  life,  vigor,  and  excel- 
lence of  composition,  and  are  striking  proofs  of  the  high  quality 
of  Aeginetan  sculpture  at  the  time  when  they  were  created,  a  time 
which  cannot  be  far  from  480  B.C.,  though  the  exact  date  is 
unknown. 

Early  Ionic  art  aims  in  general  at  ease,  freedom  of  outline,  and 


SCULPTURE  217 

grace,  while  the  art  of  continental  Greece  and  the  West  is  more 
vigorous  and  athletic,  and  exhibits  greater  interest  in  anatomy. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  artists  travelled  freely  and  worked 
in  many  places.  Canachus  of  Sicyon  was  appreciated  at  Miletus, 
and  tradition  associates  the  Aeginetan  Smilis  with  the  Samians 
Rhoecus  and  Theodorus.  The  works  preserved  to  us  are  pre- 
served by  chance,  and  no  group  of  Ionic  sculpture  comparable  to 
the  pediment  statues  from  Aegina  has  as  yet  been  discovered. 
While  it  is  proper  to  distinguish  between  the  qualities  of  Ionic 
and  Western  (continental  or  Doric)  art,  the  distinction  should  not 
be  too  strongly  emphasized,  and  the  predominant  influence  of  Ionic 
art  must  be  acknowledged. 

THE  FIFTH  CENTURY 

An  immediate  result  of  the  Persian  invasion  was  the  growth 
of  the  power  of  Athens,  which  was  accompanied  by  the  astonish- 
ing development  of  Attic  literature  and  Attic  art.     Before  this 
time  the  chief  centres  of  Hellenic  culture  were  the  great  and 
flourishing  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  influence  of  Ionic  art  was, 
on  the  whole,  predominant.     After  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century, 
although  other  local  schools  of  sculpture,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  at  Argos,  continued  to  exist,  the  influence  of    predom{_ 
Attic  art,  as  of  Attic  literature,  was  supreme.     Archaic    nance  of 
Greek  sculpture  was  chiefly  Ionic ;  developed  Greek    Attic  art 
sculpture  chiefly  Attic.     The  period  between  the  Persian  invasion 
and  the  time  of  Pericles  is  a  period  of  transition,  the  chief  monu- 
ment of  which  is  the  sculptural  adornment  of  the  temple  of  Zeus 
at  Olympia,  begun  soon  after  470  and  finished  in  457  B.C.  or  a 
little  later. 

An  interesting  work  of  the  first  years  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Persians  is  preserved  in  a  copy  in  Naples.  This  is  the  group  of 
Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton  (Fig.  163),  made  by  Critius  and 
Nesiotes  to  replace  the  group  by  Antenor,  which  had  been 
carried  off  to  Persia.  The  head  of  the  Aristogeiton  is  lost,  and 


218 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


has   been  replaced  by  a  youthful  head  of  much  later  style.1    The 
nude  figures  are  powerful  and  vigorous,  and  the  attitudes  striking. 

The  hair  of  the  Harmodius 
is  represented  by  almost  cir- 
cular grooves  and  dots ;  the 
eyes  are  round  and  full.  Since 
the  artists  were  probably 
Athenians  (though  the  name 
Nesiotes  may  indicate  that 
one  of  them  was  of  Ionic 
origin),  this  work,  in  which 
the  qualities  of  early  Attic 
sculpture  are  combined  with 
traits  of  Ionic  art,  may  serve 
as  an  example  of  Attic  sculp- 
ture immediately  after  the  bat- 
tles of  Salamis  and  Plataeae. 
The  most  noted  Attic  sculp- 
tor of  this  time  was  Calamis, 
the  effect  of  whose 
work  upon  the 
later  Greeks  may  perhaps  be 
compared  with  that  produced 
upon  modern  beholders  by 


Calamis 


FIG.  163.  —  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton, 
Naples.     (Photograph.) 


the    paintings    of  Botticelli.2 


1  The  real  head  was  certainly  bearded,  and  in  general  appearance  must 
have  resembled  a  head  in  Madrid,  formerly  called  Pherecydes,  even  if  that 
be  not,  as  some  scholars  believe,  actually  a  copy  of  the  head  of  Aristogeiton. 
In  the  [Boston]  Mi4seum  of  Fine  Arts  Bulletin,  III,  1905,  pp.  27-30,  is  a  brief 
discussion  of  this  group,  by  E.  Robinson,  in  connection  with  a  painting  of  it 
on  an  Attic  vase. 

2  Apparently  there  was  a  younger  Calamis,  a  contemporary  of  Scopas  and 
Praxiteles.      As  ancient  writers  do  not  always  distinguish  between  different 
artists  of  the  same  name,  our  information  concerning  Calamis  and  his  style  is 
much  confused.     The  references  to  stiffness  probably  refer  to  the  Calamis  of 
the  fifth  century,  and  those  to  charm  and  delicacy  to  his  later  namesake. 


SCULPTURE 


219 


Unfortunately  nothing  now  exists,  even  in  a  copy,  which  can  be 
ascribed  to  Calamis  with  any  approach  to  certainty.  The  so-called 
Penelope,  in  the  Vatican  Museum,  is,  however,  a  copy  of  an  Attic 
work  of  his  time,  and  may  give  some  idea  of  his  style  as  seen  in  a 
draped  female  figure.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  the  "Choiseul- 
Gouffier  Apollo"  and  its  replicas  at  Athens  (Fig.  164)  and 
elsewhere  reproduce  a  nude  male  figure  by  Calamis ;  but  the  un- 
certainty of  the  attribution  of  extant  copies  of  lost  works  to 
artists  whose  names  are  familiar,  but 
whose  styles  are  known  only  through 
the  vague  expressions  of  ancient  writ- 
ers, is  exemplified  in  the  case  of  this 
statue,  which  has  been  attributed  to 
Calamis,  and  also  to  Pythagoras  of 
Rhegium,  a  sculptor  who  was  born  at 
Samos,  but  passed  his  life  for  the  most 
part  among  the  Dorian  inhabitants  of 
Magna  Graecia  and  Sicily,  and  was 
famous  for  the  realism  of  his  statues. 
Roman  copies  of  many  works  of  this 
period,  as  of  the  succeeding  periods, 
exist,  from  which  a  good  general  idea 
of  its  prevailing  qualities  may  be  de- 
rived, but  the  attribution  of  individual 
works  to  artists  whose  names  are  known 
is  as  yet  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture. 
Among  the  not  very  numerous  ex- 
tant original  works  of  this  time,  the 
most  important,  apart  from  the  sculptures 
of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  are 

the  bronze  statue   of  a  charioteer  at 

FIG.  164.  —  "Apollo    on    the 

Delphi    and   the   latest  metopes  from        Omphaios/'Athens.  (Brunn- 

Selinus  Bruckmann,  PI.  42.) 

The  bronze  charioteer  (Fig.  165)  is,  on  the  whole,  the  finest  Greek 
bronze  statue  in  existence.     It  formed  part  of  a  group,  in  which  were, 


22O 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


besides  the  charioteer,  at  least  a  chariot,  horses,  and  the  goddess 
Nike ;  but  of  these  only  small  fragments  remain.  The  original 
dedicator  seems  to  have  been  Arcesilas  of  Cyrene,1  though  this 

is  not  absolutely  charioteer 
certain,  as  the  at  Delphi 
inscription  on  the  base  of 
the  group  was  altered  in 
ancient  times,  and  is  pre- 
served only  in  part.  The 
youthful  charioteer  stands 
quietly,  holding  the  reins 
in  his  right  hand.  The  left 
forearm  and  hand  are  want- 
ing. The  figure  is  full  of  re- 
strained strength  and  vigor ; 
the  expression  of  the  face 
alert,  but  dignified.  The 
drapery  is  admirably  repre- 
sented, especially  the  small 
folds  on  the  arms  and 
shoulders.  Above  the  band 
that  encircles  the  head,  the 
hair  is  represented  by  flat 
curves  in  low  relief,  but 
below  the  band  the  short 
curling  locks,  cast,  in  part 
at  least,  separately,  show 
greater  freedom.  The  eyes 
were  of  paste,  white,  with 
dark  centres.  It  is  as  yet 


FIG.  165. —  Charioteer  at  Delphi. 
(Photograph.) 


1  O.  M.  Washburn,  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  X,  1906,  pp.  151- 
153.  If  this  is  correct,  the  artist  was  Amphion  of  Cnossus,  about  whom 
little  or  nothing  is  known.  If,  as  F.  von  Duhn  (A/A.  Mitt.  XXXI,  1906,  pp. 
421-429)  thinks,  the  original  dedicator  was  Anaxilas  of  Rhegium,  the  artist 
was  probably  Pythagoras  of  Rhegium. 


SCULPTURE 


impossible  to  assign  this  admirable  work,  in  which  exquisite  work- 
manship is  combined  with  accurate  observation  of  nature  and 
great  dignity  of  conception,  with  absolute  certainty  to  any  known 
artist  or  even  to  any  school.  Argos,  Aegina,  and  Sicyon  were  fa- 
mous for  bronze  statuary,  but  this  figure  has  little  resemblance  to 
the  Aeginetan  pediment  statues,  and  of  Argive  and  Sicyonian 
sculpture  of  this  period  but  little  is  known.  The  head,  especially 
the  hair  about  the  ears,  resembles  the  heads  of  youths  on  Attic 
vases,  and  the  whole  statue  has  something  of  the  charm  associated 
with  Attic  art,  so  that  it 
is  natural  to  think  of 
Calamis  ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Dorian 
dedicator  might  perhaps 
have  preferred  a  Dorian 
artist.  It  is  therefore 
wiser  not  to  assign  to 
any  particular  school 
this  masterpiece  of  the 
period  that  followed  the 
Persian  invasion  —  a  pe- 
riod which  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  earlier 
days  of  the  Italian  Re- 
naissance, before  the 

coming   of  Michael   An-     FIG.  166.  — Zeus  and  Hera.     Metope  from  Selinus. 
gelo  and  Raphael.  (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  290  a.) 

The  latest  metopes  from  Selinus,  four  of  which  are  preserved, 
represent  mythological  scenes  (Fig.  166).  They  are  carved,  like 
the  earlier  Selinuntine  metopes,  from  a  coarse  local 
stone,  but  the  nude  parts  of  the  female  figures  are  of 
marble.  In  composition  and  postures,  as  well  as  in  the  treatment 
of  drapery  and  in  various  details,  they  are  greatly  superior  to  the 
earlier  metopes,  but  still  follow  in  some  respects,  as  in  the  hair 
and  the  angular  regularity  of  some  of  the  drapery,  the  traditions 


Selinus 


222 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


of  earlier  times,  and  are  far  from  attaining  the  perfect  finish  and 
grace  of  the  best  period  of  art.  It  is  interesting  to  observe 
the  resemblance  of  these  metopes  from  far-off  Sicily  to  the 
group  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  more  closely  related  sculptures  at  Olympia  on  the  other. 

The  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  was    completed  in  457  B.C. 

or   shortly  after.     Its    sculptures    are    therefore  probably  to  be 

assigned  to  a  very  slightly  earlier  date.     Of  the  twelve 

sculptured    metopes,    which    represented   the    twelve 

labors  of  Heracles,  two  (the  Apples  of  the  Hesperides,  Fig.  167, 

and  the  Cretan  Bull) 
are  almost  completely 
preserved,  the  rest  only 
in  fragments.  In  the 
finest  and  best  pre- 
served of  all,  Heracles 
stands  in  the  middle, 
holding  up  the  heavens, 
represented  by  the  en- 
tablature above  the 
metope.  The  cushion 
on  his  shoulders,  to 
ease  the  weight,  is  an 
interesting  touch  of 
realism.  Behind  him 
stands  one  of  the  Hes- 
perides, trying  to  help 
him  by  putting  her 


FlG.  167. —  Metope  from  Olympia.     (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  442  a.) 


maiden  hand  also  under  the  mass.  Before  him  stands  Atlas, 
holding  out  the  apples.  This  seems  almost  a  joke,  for  Heracles 
is  fully  occupied  in  holding  up  the  heavens  with  both  hands. 
In  composition  and  treatment  these  metopes  resemble  the  latest 
metopes  from  Selinus,  which  probably  belong  to  a  very  slightly 
earlier  date.  The  drapery  is  stiff;  the  hair  is  represented  by 
parallel  wavy  lines,  and  is  in  part  left  smooth,  probably  to  be 


SCULPTURE  223 

represented  by  color ;  the  eyes  of  heads  in  profile  are,  to  be  sure, 
no  longer  represented  in  full  face,  as  in  the  reliefs  of  the  sixth 
century,  but  they  are  not  yet  quite  in  profile,  and  the  details  of 
the  lids  are  not  entirely  correct ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  structure 
and  the  muscles  of  the  nude  male  figures  are  excellent. 

In  style  and  execution  the  metopes  are  closely  akin  to  the 
much  more  important  pediment  sculptures  (Fig.  168).  These, 
though  not  completely  preserved,  are  more  nearly  complete  than 
any  other  important  Greek  pediment  groups,1  and  their  composi- 
tion is  determined  except  in  some  relatively  unimportant  details.2 
In  the  eastern  pediment  the  preparation  for  the  chariot  race  be- 
tween Pelops  and  Oenomaus  is  represented.  In  the  centre  stands 
Zeus,  with  Pelops  at  his  right,  and  Oenomaus  at  his  left.  Next 
to  Pelops  stands  Hippodameia,  who  is  to  be  the  prize  of  his  vic- 
tory, and  next  to  Oenomaus  his  wife  Sterope.  Then  comes  on 
each  side  a  seated  or  crouching  figure,  one  of  which  Pausanias 
says  is  Myrtilus,  the  faithless  charioteer  of  Oenomaus ;  then  the 
horses  and  chariot,  two  more  seated  or  crouching  figures,  and  in 
the  corners  reclining  youthful  male  figures,  which  Pausanias  says 
represent  the  rivers  Alpheus  at  the  left,  and  Cladeus  at  the  right. 
The  entire  scene  is  quiet.  The  five  figures  in  the  centre  stand 
erect,  facing  forward,  with  hardly  a  semblance  of  action,  the  horses 
stand  still,  with  no  sign  of  spirit  or  impatience,  and  the  other 
figures,  none  of  which,  except  Myrtilus,  has  much  significance,  are 
either  quietly  holding  the  horses  or  resting  in  easy  attitudes.  The 
chief  personages  form  a  group  in  the  centre,  to  which  perhaps 
the  persons  in  front  of  the  horses  should  be  reckoned,  the  chariots 
and  their  attendants  two  other  groups,  and  the  river  gods  indicate 
the  scene  of  the  story.  Within  the  groups  each  figure  at  one  side 
of  the  centre  corresponds  to  a  similar  figure  at  the  other  side. 

The  western  pediment  is  very  different.  Here  a  scene  of  wild 
confusion  and  violent  action,  the  combat  of  Centaurs  and  Lapiths 
at  the  marriage  of  Peirithous,  is  represented.  In  the  centre 
stands,  with  outstretched  hand,  the  majestic  figure  of  Apollo 

1  Except  those  from  Aegina.          2  Pausanias,  V,  10,  6-9,  describes  them. 


224 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


SCULPTURE  225 

(fig.  169).   At  each  side  is  a  hero,  probably  Peirithous  at  the  god's 
right  and  Theseus  at  his  left,  striking  at  a  Centaur  who  has  seized 


FlG.  169.  —  Apollo,  from  pediment  at  Olympia.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  451.) 

a  woman ;  then  follows  at  each  side  a  group  of  two  figures,  a  Cen- 
taur with  a  Lapith  and  a  Centaur  with  a  boy ;  then  on  each  side  a 

GREEK  ARCH. —  15 


226  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

woman  in  the  grasp  of  a  Centaur  who  is  forced  to  the  ground  by 
a  kneeling  Lapith  ;  then  an  old  woman  raising  herself  slightly  from 
a  bed  or  cushion ;  and  finally  in  each  corner  a  reclining  female 
figure,  probably  a  nymph,  or  perhaps  a  maid  who  has  escaped  from 
the  turmoil. 

The  difference  between  the  two  pediments  is  striking.  In  one 
all  is  quiet,  in  the  other,  all,  save  Apollo  and  the  recumbent  fe- 
male figures,  is  full  of  violent  action.  Yet  the  principles  of  com- 
position are  the  same.  In  the  eastern  pediment  the  central  group 
consists  of  Zeus,  flanked  by  two  closely  connected  couples,  each 
with  an  attendant ;  in  the  western,  two  groups  of  three  are  strug- 
gling beside  Apollo ;  in  the  eastern  pediment  the  chariots  and 
attendants  correspond,  and  in  the  western  a  group  of  three  and 
one  of  two  figures  on  one  side  correspond  to  similar  groups  on 
the  other ;  and  in  each  pediment  recumbent  figures  serve  to  fill 
the  corners  and  mark  the  scene  of  action.  Moreover,  within  the 
groups  here,  as  in  the  pediments  of  Aegina,  each  figure  on  one 
side  corresponds  accurately  to  a  figure  on  the  other.  The  only 
marked  difference  is  seen  in  the  central  groups,  for  the  heroes 
at  each  side  of  Apollo  are  turned  away  from  him,  while  those 
beside  Zeus  are  not,  and  this  difference  is  merely  a  natural  result 
of  the  violent  action  in  one  pediment  and  the  inactivity  in  the 
other. 

The  pediments  are  alike  in  their  divisions  into  groups,  in  the 
number  of  figures,  and  in  their  rigid  symmetry.  They  are  also 
alike  in  the  proportions  and  contours  of  the  human  bodies,  in  the 
shape  of  the  heads,  the  treatment  of  muscles,  hair,  eyes,  and  other 
details,  as  well  as  in  technical  execution,  though  in  each  pediment 
the  execution  is  very  uneven,  ranging  from  careful  accuracy  to 
extreme  carelessness.1  Pausanias  says  that  the  eastern  pediment 
is  by  Paeonius  of  Mende,  and  the  western  by  Alcamenes,  the  well- 

1  The  two  reclining  figures  at  the  north  end  of  the  western  pediment,  the 
old  woman  and  the  right  arm  of  the  nymph  at  the  south  end,  which  are  of 
Pente'ic  marble,  whereas  the  other  figures  are  all  Parian,  are  later  restorations, 
and  show  different  treatment. 


SCULPTURE 


227 


known  pupil  of  Phidias.  The  similarity  of  the  two  works,  how- 
ever, in  execution,  in  design,  and  in  the  principles  of  composition, 
makes  it  almost  impossible  to  accept  this  statement.  The  two 
pediment  groups  are  certainly  the  work  of  the  same  school,  and 
almost  certainly  of  the  same  artist.  They  are  so  unlike  Attic 
work  that  the  attribution  to  Al- 
camenes  can  be  accepted  only 
by  assuming  the  existence  of 
an  Alcamenes  distinct  from  the 
pupil  of  Phidias.  The  style  of 
Paeonius  is  known  through  his 
statue  of  Nike  at  Olympia  (Fig. 
170),  and  this  is  more  advanced 
than  the  style  of  the  pediment 
figures ;  but  if,  as  seems  prob- 
able, the  Nike  was  set  up  after 
the  affair  at  Sphacteria,  in  425 
B.C.,  the  style  of  Paeonius  might 
have  developed  in  the  interval. 
It  is,  then,  possible  that  Pae- 
onius was  the  author  of  the 
pediment  figures,  but  hardly 
probable.  It  is  therefore  better 
to  assign  them  to  no  individual 
artist,  but  to  content  ourselves 
with  the  statement  that  they  are 
probably  the  work  of  a  Pelopon- 
nesian  school  which  had  at  some 
time  come  under  the  influence 
of  Ionic  art.  There  is  a  certain 


FIG.  170. —  Nike  of  Paeonius.    (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  444.) 


want  of  delicacy  in  these  splendid  figures,  but  there  is  no  lack  of 
vigor,  and  the  composition  is  skilful,  even  though  a  critical  analy- 
sis shows  that  it  is  too  rigidly  symmetrical.  The  unevenness  of 
execution  and  some  minor  faults  of  design  would  not  have  been 
noticeable  when  the  figures  were  in  place  in  the  pediments,  high 


228 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


above  the  ground,  and  they  were  moreover  disguised  by  the  color- 
ing which  once  added  to  the  brilliant  effect  of  the  whole. 

At  the  time  when  the  sculptures  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  were 
designed  and  executed,  the  most  famous  sculptors  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, Myron,  Phidias,  and 
Polyclitus,  were  already 
known,  though  the  young- 
est of  them,  Polyclitus,  had 
but  just  entered  upon  his 
career.  All  three  are  said 
to  have  been  pupils  of  the 
Argive  sculptor  Hagelaidas, 
and  even  if  this  tradition  be 
inexact,  it  has  its  value  as 
an  indication  that  ancient 
critics  saw  no  improbability 
in  the  assertion  that  the 
great  Attic  artists,  Phidias 
and  Myron,  received  in- 
struction from  Argos. 

Myron  of  Eleutherae,  a 
small  town  on  the  borders 
of  Attica  and 
Boeotia,  was 
born  probably  toward  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century,  and 
his  chief  activity  lay  in  the 
second  quarter  of  the  fifth 
century.  He  was  younger 
than  Calamis,  but  older  than  Phidias,  and  a  contemporary  of  both. 
He  was  especially  noted  for  his  bronze  figures  of  animals  and  ath- 
letes, and  his  famous  bronze  cow  was  so  lifelike  that  it  was  said  to 
deceive  living  cattle.  Of  one  of  his  famous  athlete  figures,  the  Dis- 
cobolus or  Discus  Thrower,  several  Roman  copies  in  marble  exist, 
the  best  of  which  is  in  the  Palazzo  Lancelotti,  in  Rome  (Fig.  171). 


Myron 


FlG.  171. —  Discobolus  Lancelotti;   after 
Myron.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  256.) 


SCULPTURE  229 

The  artist  has  seized  the  instant  just  before  the  cast,  when  the 
figure  is  most  contorted,  ready  to  straighten  out  like  a  steel  spring 
when  the  tension  is  removed  by  the  supreme  exertion.  Not  only 
the  general  attitude,  but  details,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  bent 
toes  of  the  left  foot  dragging  on  the  ground,  show  most  accurate 
observation  and  careful  study.  Only  the  face  lacks  the  intense 
expression  that  naturally  accompanies  physical  exertion,  and  the 
hair  is  imperfectly  represented,  though  the  improvement  over  the 
formal  circular  curls  of  the  Harmodius  of  Critius  and  Nesiotes  is 
surprisingly  great.  With  Myron  the  last  vestiges  of  the  old  law  of 
frontality  have  disappeared.  The  representation  of  the  human 
form  in  motion,  however  violent,  has  been  mastered.  Yet  there 
is  in  this  figure,  with  all  its  lifelike  vigor  and  study  of  detail,  noth- 
ing like  the  realism  which  reproduces  the  personal  qualities  of  an 
individual  model.  The  Discobolus  is  still,  in  modern  parlance,  an 
idealistic,  not  a  realistic,  work,  but  its  idealism  is  entirely  on  the 
physical  plane  and  does  not  rise  to  the  height  of  great  concep- 
tions. Another  work  by  Myron  which  is  known  to  us  through 
copies1  is  a  Satyr  (Fig.  253),  which  originally  formed  a  group  with 
a  figure  of  Athena.  This  shows  qualities  similar  to  those  of  the 
Discobolus,  though -the  posture  is  not  so  contorted,  the  hair  is 
less  imperfectly  rendered,  and  the  face  is  more  expressive.  The 
metopes  of  the  so-called  Theseum,  at  Athens,  exhibit  the  qualities 
of  Myron's  art,  and  are  probably  the  work  of  his  school. 

Myron  made  great  progress  in  the  accurate  representation  of 
animals  and  of  men,  especially  in  the  difficult  postures  momentarily 
assumed  in  the  course  of  more  or  less  violent  action. 
His  far  greater  contemporary,  Phidias,  may  perhaps  have 
done  less  to  increase  the  ability  of  Greek  sculptors  to  represent 
nature  truthfully,  but  he  added  grandeur  and  purity  of  conception 
to  the  technical  excellence  achieved  by  others.     The  types  of  gods 
invented  by  Phidias  remained  throughout  antiquity  the  accepted 
types,  and  his  influence  is  visible  in  countless  works  of  later  ages. 

1  A  full-sized  marble  copy  in  the  Lateran  Museum  and  a  small  bronze  in 
the  British  Museum. 


230 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


The  two  most  famous  works  of  Phidias  were  the  colossal  statues 
of  Athena  in  the  Parthenon  at  Athens  and  of  Zeus  in  the  temple  at 
Olyrapia,  both  of  which  are  described  in  detail  by  Pausanias.1  The 
nude  parts  of  both  were  incrusted  with  ivory  and  the  draperies 
were  of  gold,  a  technique  which  developed  naturally,  with  the  in- 
crease of  wealth,  from  the  earlier  method  of  incrusting  wooden 
statues  with  bronze.  The  originals  are,  of  course,  gone,  but  the 
descriptions  enable  us  to  recognize  adaptations  of  both  statues  in 
later  works,  copies  of  the  Athena  Parthenos  in  two  statuettes  of 

Roman  date,  and  reproductions  of 
the  heads  in  lesser  works  of  art.2 
None  of  these,  however,  suffices  to 
give  more  than  the  general  form  and 
posture,  with  details  of  the  orna- 
mentation, of  the  great  statues. 
The  grandeur  of  the  originals,  the 
effect  of  their  great  size  and  of  the 
brilliancy  of  their  precious  materials, 
can  be  restored  only  in  imagination, 
and  (what  is  still  more  important) 
the  imitations  do  not  reproduce  the 
individual  qualities,  or  even  the 

1  I,  24,  7,  and  V,  n. 

2  The  two  statuettes  are  the  Varvakeion 
statuette   (1.03  m.   in  height;    Fig.    172) 
and   the    unfinished    Lenormant   statuette 
(0.934  m.  high  without  the  base),  both  in 
Athens.      A  complete  list  of  the  adapta- 
tions  would    be    long  rather   than   useful. 
The  "Minerve  au  collier"  in  the  Louvre 
may  serve  as  an  example  of  adaptations  of 
the   Athena    Parthenos,   and    most  of  the 


FlG.  172.  —  Varvakeion  statuette. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  39.) 


seated  statues  of  Zeus  and  other  bearded  gods  (and  Roman  emperors)  stand  in 
some  relation  to  the  Zeus  of  Phidias.  The  head  of  the  Athena  is  reproduced 
in  the  Aspasius  gem  (Fig.  336,  p.  408)  and  two  g<  Id  medallions  from  the 
Crimea  (Fig.  265,  p.  350).  The  entire  statue  and  the  head  of  the  Zeus  are  re- 
produced on  Elean  bronze  coins  of  roman  date  (Figs.  277,  276,  pp.  363,  362). 


SCULPTURE 


231 


technical  details,  which  distinguish  the  works  of  genius  from  the 
productions  of  mere  artisans. 

It  is,  however,  evident  that  Phidias  relied  for  his  effect,  apart 
from  richness  of  material  and  elaborate  adornment,  upon  simplicity 
of  posture  and.  calm  dignity  of  expression.  The  drapery  of  the 
Athena  falls  in  large,  straight  folds,  without  the  variety  produced 
by  the  irregular  fall  of  delicate  textures  and  without  the  exposure 
of  the  details  of  the  body  which  accompanies  the  use  of  thin 
draperies.  There  is  nothing  of  that  virtuosity  in  the  treatment  of 
drapery  which  is  so  marked  a  feature  in  the  pediment  sculptures 
of  the  Parthenon  and  still  more  in  the  reliefs  of  the  balustrade  of 
the  temple  of  Athena  Nike.  In  pose,  as  in  drapery,  the  Athena 
is,  when  compared  with  the  pediment  figures,  almost  archaic. 
The  head  is  strong,  but  not 
square,  as  in  the  statues  by  Poly- 
clitus  ;  it  is  rather  of  a  broad  oval 
shape,  resembling  in  that  respect 
somewhat  the  head  of  the  Har- 
modius  of  Critius. 

Ancient  writers,  in  referring  to 
the  Zeus  at  Olympia,  speak  of 
the  benignity  of  his  expression 
and  also  recall  the  Homeric  lines 
in  which  Zeus  nods  with  his  eye- 
brows and  causes  Olympus  to 
tremble.  Something  of  this  min- 
gled power  and  benignity  is  faintly 
reproduced  on  the  Elean  coin 
with  the  head  of  the  Zeus  of 
Phidias ;  but  perhaps  our  best 
idea  of  the  head  is  derived  from 
a  marble  head  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston  (Fig.  173), 
though  this  is  a  not  especially  fine  work  of  perhaps  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  in  which  benignity  has  almost  become  weakness. 
Nevertheless,  comparison  with  the  coin  shows  that  this  head  re- 


FIG.  173.  —  Head  of  Zeus,  in  Boston. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  573.) 


232 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


produces,  with  slight  modifications,  the  type  of  the  Zeus  at  Olympia, 
which  ancient  writers  unite  in  praising  as  the  most  sublime  repre- 
sentation of  the  father  of  gods  and  men. 

The  statue  of  Athena  Parthenos  was  dedicated  in  438  B.C.  and 
the  Zeus  at  Olympia  was  probably  a  slightly  later  work.     Phidias 

is  said  to  have  represented  himself  on 
the  shield  of  the  Athena  as  a  bald- 
headed  old  man.  Of  his  life  little  is 
known,  but  he  seems  to  have  been, 
perhaps  for  political  reasons,  banished 
from  Athens  soon  after  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Parthenos,  and  to  have 
died  not  long  after  he  finished  the 
Zeus.  His  earliest  recorded  works, 
among  them  probably  a  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  Athena  (sometimes 
called  the  Athena  Promachos)  on  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens,  can  hardly  be 
later  than  470  B.C.  He  was,  then, 
probably  born  but  little,  if  at  all,  after 
500  B.C.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
Athena  Parthenos  was  not  finished 
until  438  B.C.,  and  the  Zeus  at  Olym- 
pia probably  not  until  even  later,  his 
artistic  activity  belongs  chiefly  to  the 
first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  He  was 
a  contemporary  of  Calamis,  even  of 
Critius  and  Nesiotes,  and  his  earlier 
works  cannot  have  been  free  from 
archaism.  His  great  fame  justifies  us 


FIG.  174.  —  So-called  Lemnian 
Athena.  (Furtwangler,  Mas- 
terpieces, PI.  i.) 


in  the  belief  that  the  wonderful  progress  of  Greek  sculpture  during 
his  lifetime  was  in  great  measure  the  work  of  his  genius.  How 
numerous  his  works  in  marble,  bronze,  gold  and  ivory,  and  other 
materials  were  we  do  not  know.  Many  are  mentioned  by  ancient 
writers,  but  none,  except  the  Parthenos  and  the  Zeus,  has  been 


SCULPTURE  233 

identified  with  certainty  in  later  copies.  In  recent  years  Professor 
Furtwangler,  by  combining  a  marble  head  in  Bologna  with  a  torso 
in  Dresden,  has  reconstructed  a  statue  of  Athena  (Fig.  174), 
which  is  evidently  an  Attic  work  of  the  time  of  Phidias  and  agrees 
with  what  we  know  of  his  style.  Whether,  as  Professor  Furtwangler 
thought,  it  is  a  copy  of  the  Lemnian  Athena,  a  bronze  statue  by 
Phidias  set  up  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  about  450  B.C.,  is  not  so 
certain,  though  this  view  is  supported  by  strong  arguments. 

The  third  of  the  great  masters  of  the  fifth  century,  Polyclitus, 
was  an  Argive,  though  perhaps  born  at  Sicyon.  His  earliest  dated 
work,  the  statue  of  the  boy  boxer  Cyniscus,  commem- 
orates an  Olympic  victory  of  the  year  462  B.C.1  His 
birth  can  therefore  hardly  have  taken  place  much  later  than  490  or 
485  B.C.  About  423  B.C.  he  made  the  great  chryselephantine  statue 
of  Hera  in  the  Argive  Heraeum.  With  this  exception  his  works, 
almost  exclusively  of  bronze,  were  chiefly  statues  of  victorious 
athletes.  All  these  figures,  so  far  as  is  known,  stood  erect,  in  a 
walking  posture,  with  the  weight  borne  chiefly  on  one  foot.  This 
posture  was  not  invented  by  Polyclitus,  but  was  elaborated  and 
perfected  by  him.  His  claim  to  greatness  (and  ancient  critics 
regarded  him  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  artists)  rested  chiefly  upon 
the  perfection  of  his  works,  rather  than  upon  fertility  of  inven- 
tion or  grandeur  of  conception. 

None  of  his  works  is  preserved  in  the  original,  and  Argive 
coins  give  at  best  only  a  general  notion  of  the  appearance  of 
the  head  of  the  great  seated  statue  of  Hera ; 2  but  three  of  his 
most  famous  works  are  preserved  in  marble  copies.  These  are 
the  Doryphorus,3  the  Diadumenus,  and  the  Amazon.  All  stand 

1  C.  Robert,  Hermes,  XXXV,  1900,  p.  186. 

2  C.  Waldstein,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  XXI,  1901,  pp.  30-44,  finds 
an  adaptation  of  this  head  in  a  marble  head  in  the  British  Museum.     On  a 
cylix  with  white  ground  in  Berlin,  a  statuesque  figure  of  Hera  has  a  similar 
headgear. 

8  A  fine  bronze  copy  of  the  head  of  this  statue,  signed  by  one  Apollodorus, 
is  in  the  Museum  at  Naples. 


234 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


in  the  walking  posture,  and  all  are  alike  in  the  relatively  square 
shape  of  the  head,  the  square  shoulders,  and  the  powerful  forms  of 
the  body.  The  Doryphorus  (Fig.  1 75)  was  called  the  "  Canon,"  and 
was  regarded  as  the  model  of  proportions.  The  attitude  is  so 


FlG.  175.  —  Copy  of  the  Dory- 
phorus of  Polyclitus.  (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  273,  Ersatztafel.) 


FIG.  176.  — C 
Polyclitus. 
272.) 


(Brunn-Bruckmann,    PI. 


simple,  so  nearly  a  mere  example  of  the  typical  Polyclitan  formula 
of  rest  in  motion,  that  the  figure  serves  admirably  as  the  founda- 
tion for  the  study  of  the  Polyclitan  style. 

The  attitude  of  the  Diadumenus,  with  the  hands  raised  to  hold 
the  ends  of  the  fillet  or  ribbon  that  is  to  be  bound  about  the 
head,  is  more  individual  (Fig.  176).  The  proportions  are  some- 


SCULPTURE 


235 


what  less  heavy  than  those  of  the  Doryphorus,  probably  because 
the  youth  represented  is  supposed  to  be  younger. 

Of  the  two  distinct  types  of  Amazon  which  are  evidently  prod- 
ucts of  the  fifth  century,  one  resembles  the  Doryphorus  in  pro- 
portions and  general  lines  as  closely  as  a  female  figure  can 
resemble  the  figure  of  a  young 
man.  This  is  the  "Berlin"  type 
(Fig.  177),  so  called  because  its 
best-known  representative  is  in  the 
Royal  Museum  at  Berlin.  The 
original  bronze  stood  alone,  with- 
out the  pillar  which  serves  the 
marble  reproduction  as  a  support, 
and  the  wound  represented  in  the 
breast  of  the  Berlin  statue  is  with- 
out doubt  a  senseless  addition  of 
the  copyist,  which  he  was  led  to 
make  because  he  confounded  the 
motive  of  the  Polyclitan  statue  with 
that  of  the  other  type,  which  rep- 
resents a  wounded  Amazon. 

The  marble  copies  of  the  works 
of  Polyclitus  give  us  an  idea  of  his 
style,  but  not  of  his  technical  skill 
in  execution.  Even  the  bronze 
copy  of  the  head  of  the  Dory- 
phorus in  the  Museum  at  Naples, 
although  it  is  no  doubt  more  like 
the  original  than  are  the  marble 
copies,  fails  to  make  clear  to  us 
why  the  ancients  regarded  Polyclitus  as  almost,  if  not  quite,  the 
equal  of  Phidias.  Since  his  original  works  are  lost,  we  can  only 
accept  the  statements  of  ancient  writers  concerning  their  perfec- 
tion and  estimate  his  influence  by  the  great  number  of  copies  and 
adaptations  of  his  statues  which  were  produced  in  later  times,  as 


FlG.  177.  —  Amazon,  Berlin. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  348.) 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


well  as  by  the  traces  of  his  style  visible  in  the  works  of  some  of 
the  greatest  of  his  successors. 

Fragments  of  marble  sculpture  found  in  the  American  exca- 
vations at  the  Argive  Heraeum  once  formed  part  of  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  great  temple  for  which  Polyclitus  made  the  statue  of 
Hera.  They  are  original  works  of  the  time  of  Polyclitus,  and 
were  probably  designed  and  executed  by  artists  who  were  greatly 
influenced  by  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Argive  school  of 
sculpture.  These  fragments,  therefore,  although  we  have  no  rea- 
son to  suppose  that  they  are  the 
work  of  Polyclitus  himself,  give 
us  original  contemporary  evi- 
dence concerning  his  style  and 
that  of  his  school.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  observe  that  they  exhibit 
far  greater  freshness  of  concep- 
tion and  liveliness  of  expression 
than  do  the  dull  and  mechani- 
cal Roman  copies  of  the  great 
artist's  famous  works.  Among 
the  fragments  the  most  inter- 
esting is  perhaps  a  female  head, 
frequently  called  "  Hera,"  which 
may  have  had  a  place  in  one 


FlG.  178. —  Head  from  the  Argive 
Heraeum.  (Waldstein,  The  Argive 
Heraeum.  Frontispiece.) 


of  the  pediments  (Fig.  178). 
While  this  head  is  somewhat  less  broad  or  square  than  the  head 
of  the  Doryphorus  or  of  the  Amazon,  and  thereby  tends  slightly 
toward  the  Attic  type,  it  is  nevertheless  Argive  work,  and  shows 
that  the  work  of  the  Argive  school  was  less  uniform  and  monoto- 
nous than  might  be  inferred  were  our  judgment  to  be  based  solely 
on  the  copies  of  the  famous  statues  of  Polyclitus.  This  original 
work,  though  doubtless  by  a  less  famous  artist,  serves  therefore  to 
supplement  and  correct  the  estimate  of  the  style  of  Polyclitus 
derived  from  the  copies. 

Among  the  other  sculptors  of  this  period  Cresilas,  Alcamenes, 


SCULPTURE  237 

and  Agoracritus  should  be  mentioned,  all  of  whom  worked  chiefly 
at  Athens,  though  Cresilas  was  a  Cretan,  from  Cy-  c  ., 
donia.  A  well-known  bust  of  Pericles  in  the  British  Alcamenes, 
Museum  is  regarded  with  good  reason  as  a  copy  of  Ag°racritus 
an  original  by  Cresilas,  who  was  evidently  an  artist  of  great  ability 
and  power.  Alcamenes  and  Agoracritus  are  mentioned  as  the 
chief  pupils  of  Phidias.  The  former  was  especially  famed  for  the 
delicacy  of  his  work,  and  in  modern  times  his  "  Aphrodite  of  the 
Gardens"  has  been  regarded  as  the  original  of  the  type  of  thinly 
veiled  female  figure  known  as  "  Venus  Genetrix."  l  Alcamenes 
is  also  said  to  have  invented  the  type  of  the  threefold  Hecate. 
That  Pausanias  can  hardly  be  right  in  ascribing  to  him  the  sculp- 
tures in  the  western  pediment  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia 
has  already  been  said  (p.  227).  Agoracritus  is  said  to  have  been 
the  artist  of  the  statue  of  Nemesis  at  Rhamnus,  though  some 
ancient  writers  ascribed  it  to  Phidias  himself.  The  statue,  about 
fifteen  feet  high,  represented  the  goddess  standing,  with  a  branch 
of  apple  in  her  left  hand  and  in  her  right  a  bowl  adorned  with 
figures  of  Ethiopians.  On  the  pedestal  were  reliefs  representing 
a  version  of  the  myth  of  Helen,  who  was  said  to  be  the  daughter 
of  Nemesis  and  only  the  foster  child  of  Leda.  Fragments  of 
these  small  reliefs,  now  in  the  National  Museum  at  Athens,  show 
that  the  style  of  Agoracritus  was  full  of  grace  and  charm.  They 
are  exquisite,  both  in  design  and  execution,  and,  in  spite  of  their 
small  size,  do  not  lack  dignity.  They  justify  us  in  assuming  that 
the  larger  works  of  Agoracritus  were  of  the  highest  excellence. 

Few  original  works  of  substantive  sculpture  belonging  to  the 
time  of  Phidias  and  Polyclitus  are  extant ;   and  if  by  chance  any 
such  work  is  preserved,  it  is  now  impossible  to  assign  it  with  as- 
surance to  any  individual  artist.     The  famous  works  of  this  class 
are  known  to  us  only  through  inferior   copies  or  the   Sculptures 
descriptions   of  Pausanias    and   other   writers.     The      of  the 
decorative  sculpture  of  the  period  has  not  disappeared   Parthenon 
so  completely,  and  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  are,  even  in 

1  See  p.  290. 


238  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

their  fragmentary  condition,  among  the  grandest  monuments  of 
human  genius.  The  temple  was  begun  in  447  and  dedicated  in 
438  B.C.,  but  inscriptions  prove  that  it  was  not  entirely  finished 
until  432.  The  sculptured  metopes,  above  the  architrave,  must 
have  been  finished  before  438,  as  they  were  carved  before  they 
were  put  in  place,  and  the  same  is  probably  true  of  the  Ionic 
frieze,  which  ran  round  the  outside  of  the  cella.  The  statues  in 
the  pediments  may  have  been  completed  and  put  in  their  places 
after  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  though  this  cannot  be  positively 
asserted.  At  any  rate,  all  the  sculptures  are  approximately  dated 
between  447  and  432  B.C. 

The  ninety-two  metopes,  each  about  four  feet  square,1  were  all 
adorned  with  figures  in  very  high  relief;  the  Ionic  frieze  was  a  con- 
tinuous composition  in  low  relief,  522  ft.  8  in.  (159.42  m.)  long 
and  3  ft.  3.95  in.  (i  m.)  high;  the  pediments,  93  ft.  (28.35  m-) 
long  and  n|-  ft.  (3.456m.)  high  in  the  middle,  were  completely 
filled  with  colossal  statues.  The  sculptures  were  all  of  the  same 
Pentelic  marble  as  the  building  itself. 

Of  the  metopes  forty-three  are  still  in  place  on  the  Parthenon, 
where  they  have  suffered  greatly  from  exposure,  fifteen  are  in  the 
British  Museum,  one  in  the  Louvre,  and  fragments  are  in  the 
British  Museum,  the  Louvre,  the  Acropolis  Museum  at  Athens, 
and  two  in  Copenhagen.  The  rest  are  lost.  The  subject  of  those 
at  the  east  end  is  the  battle  of  the  Gods  and  the  Giants,  of  those 
at  the  west  end  the  battle  of  the  Athenians  and  the  Amazons. 
On  the  south  side  the  metopes  toward  each  end  represented 
Centaurs  fighting  with  Lapiths,  as  did  those  in  the  middle  of  the 
north  side.  The  metopes  in  the  middle  of  the  south  side  and 
those  toward  the  ends  of  the  north  side  appear  to  have  repre- 
sented scenes  from  the  Trojan  War.  The  best-preserved  metopes, 
those  in  the  British  Museum,  all  represent  Centaurs  in  conflict 
with  Lapiths,  and  are  almost  the  only  ones  so  well  preserved  as  to 
enable  us  to  judge  of  the  style  and  workmanship,  in  both  of  which 
they  exhibit  great  variety.  In  some  the  figures  are  stiff,  with  dis- 
1  1. 20  m.  by  1.27  m. 


SCULPTURE 


239 


tinct  traces  of  archaism,  and  the  workmanship  is  not  remarkable  ; 

in  others  the  design  is  vigorous,  admirably  adapted  to  the  square 

space  to  be  filled,  and  full 

of  life,  while  the  execution 

is  both  fine  and  free.    One 

of  the   best  is   shown   in 

Figure  179. 

The  Ionic  frieze  repre- 
sents the  Panathenaic  pro- 
cession. At  the  west  end 
the  knights  (tTTTrcts),  the 
youths  of  the  best  families 
of  Athens,  are  preparing 
to  mount  their  horses  or 
have  already  mounted  and 
are  starting  on  their  way. 
This  part  of  the  frieze  is 


Metope  from  the  Parthenon. 
(Photograph.) 


still  in  place,  as  is  also  a  small  part  of  the  frieze  of  the  south 
side.    Most  of  the  rest  is  in  the  British  Museum,  though  several 

slabs  and  frag- 
ments are  in  the 
MB  Acropolis  Mu- 
seum at  Athens. 
On  the  north  and 
south  sides  the 
procession  is 
seen  advancing 
toward  the  east 
end.  Here  are 
youths  on  horse- 
back (Fig.  1  80), 
chariots  with 
their  drivers,  and 

a.7rof3a.Tai,  or  armed  men,  who  fought  either  from  the  chariot  or  on 
foot,  cattie  and  sheep  led  to  the  sacrifice,  maidens  carrying  jars, 


FIG.  180.  —  From  the  northern  frieze  of  the  Parthenon. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  113.) 


240 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


in  short,  the  various  component  parts  of  the  great  procession. 
On  each  of  the  long  sides  of  the  building  the  procession  is  repre- 
sented, so  that  the  spectator  could  see  it  equally  well  whether  he 
walked  along  the  northern  or  the  southern  portico.  At  the  east 
end  the  procession  turns  the  corner,  headed  by  priests  and  maid- 
ens who  carry  ceremonial  implements.  Before  these  stand  two 

groups  of  male 
figures,  apparently 
the  ten  eponymous 
heroes  of  the  Attic 
tribes.  Then  come 
at  each  side  six 
seated  figures,  the 
twelve  great  dei- 
ties (Fig.  i8i),and 
with  them  Iris  at- 
tendant upon  Hera 
and  Eros  leaning 
upon  the  knees  of 
his  mother  Aphro- 
dite. In  the  mid- 
dle, over  the  great  door,  is  a  group  of  five  persons,  two  maidens 
carrying  stools  on  their  heads,  the  priestess,  and  a  priest,  who 
seems  to  be  taking  a  large  folded  cloth,  the  sacred  peplos  of 
Athena,  from  his  young  attendant.  Thus  the  procession  takes 
place  in  the  presence  of  the  Attic  heroes  and  the  great  divinities. 
No  more  perfect  expression  of  its  religious  significance  could  be 
imagined. 

The  metopes,  destined  to  be  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  en- 
tablature, where  they  were  exposed  to  the  full  brightness  of  the 
brilliant  Athenian  sunlight,  are  properly  carved  in  very  high  re- 
lief, which  casts  deep  shadows.  The  frieze,  high  up  at  the  top  of 
the  wall  of  the  cella,  was  always  in  the  shade  and  received  only 
diffused  and  reflected  light  from  below.  It  was  therefore  neces- 
sarily carved  in  low  relief.  Moreover,  since  the  light  came  from 


FIG.  181. —  From  the  eastern  frieze  of  the  Parthenon. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  194.) 


SCULPTURE  241 

below,  the  shadows  must  fall  upward,  and  the  artist,  fully  con- 
scious of  this  fact,  made  the  lower  parts  of  the  figures  project  less 
from  the  background  than  the  upper  parts  and  cut  the  upper  out- 
lines in  sharply,  while  the  lower  parts  of  the  figures  reach  the 
background  by  more  gentle  curves.  .In  this  way  the  shadows 
were  prevented  from  destroying  the  clearness  of  the  design. 
Even  with  all  this  care,  however,  the  design  would  hardly  have 
been  clearly  visible  from  below,  had  the  aid  of  color  (and,  in  some 
cases,  affixed  metal)  not  been  called  in.  The  details  of  the  color- 
ing are  lost,  but  the  background  was  probably  blue,  and  red  and 
gold  were  freely  used  on  the  figures.  The  variety  of  design  is 
remarkable,  for  not  one  of  the  hundreds  of  figures  is  a  repro- 
duction of  any  other,  yet  all  are  dignified,  graceful*  and  beautiful. 
The  workmanship  is  not  of  uniform  excellence,  but  there  is  no 
such  difference  as  exists  in  the  metopes,  and  the  design  of  the 
entire  frieze  is  evidently  the  work  of  one  consummate  artist. 

Nearly  all  the  extant  remains  of  the  pediment  statues  are  in  the 
British  Museum,  though  many  fragments  are  in  Athens,  and  one 
head  (the  so-called  Weber  or  De  Laborde  head)  is  in  Paris. 

The  subjects  of  the  pediment  sculptures  are  known  from  the 
statement  of  Pausanias,  who  says  that  in  the  eastern  pediment  the 
birth  of  Athena  was  represented  and  in  the  western  the  strife  of 
Athena  and  Poseidon  for  the  possession  of  Attica.  Drawings 
made  by  an  artist1  who  was  in  Athens  with  the  Marquis  de  Nointel 
in  1674  represent  the  pediments  as  they  were  at  that  time,  when 
the  sculptures  of  the  western  end  were  almost  entire ;  but  the 
central  group  of  the  eastern  pediment  was  even  then  destroyed 
and  its  arrangement  can  be  only  conjecturally  restored.  It  is, 
however,  certain  that  Zeus,  Athena,  and  Hephaestus,  or  Prome- 
theus, were  represented,  and  with  them  were  probably  the 
Eilithyiae,  or  goddesses  of  childbirth,  while  Nike  floated  above, 
in  the  very  centre  of  the  pediment.  So  the  scene  is  represented 

1  Not  as  was  formerly  believed,  Jacques  Carrey.  See  Vandal,  L'Odyssee 
</'««  Ambassadeur.  Les  voyages  du  marquis  de  Nointel,  1670-1680,  Appen- 
dice  iii.  Paris,  1900. 

GREEK   ARCH. 1 6 


242 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


on  a  puteal  in  Madrid.  The  marks  on  the  blocks  of  the  cornice 
which  once  supported  the  statues,  each  of  which  had  a  separate 
plinth,  indicate  that  Zeus  was  seated  just  at  the  left  of  the  centre, 
with  Athena  standing  before  him,  at  the  right.  The  first  extant 
figure  toward  the  left  is  Iris,  bearing  the  news  to  the  two  seated 
figures  beyond,  who  may  be  Demeter  and  Persephone,  or  the 
Horae.  The  splendid  recumbent  figure  beyond  these  (Fig.  182)  is 
sometimes  called  Theseus  or  Dionysus,  but  has  also  been  inter- 
preted as  a  personification  of  Olympus.  In  the  corner,  Helios, 

driving  his  four 
horses,  rises  from 
the  sea.  The  three 
magnificent  draped 
figures  at  the  right 
(Fig.  183)  have 
been  called  the 
Fates,  the  three 
Attic  Horae,  and 
also  personifica- 
tions of  aspects  of 
nature.  So  Brunn 
called  them  clouds, 
and  Waldstein  in- 
terprets the  two  at 


FlG.  182.  —  Figure  from  the  eastern  pediment  of  the 
Parthenon.     (Brunn-Bruekmann,  PI.  187.) 


the  right  as  Thalassa  in  the  lap  of  Gaia  (the  Sea  in  the  lap  of  Earth). 
In  the  corner  Selene  in  her  four-horse  chariot  sinks  into  the  sea. 

The  central  group  of  the  western  pediment  is  preserved  in  the 
drawing  of  1674,  and  is  reproduced,  though  with  some  changes,  on 
a  vase  from  Kertch,  now  in  St.  Petersburg.  In  the  centre  was 
Athena's  gift  to  Athens,  the  sacred  olive  tree.  At  the  left  stands 
Athena,  who  has  just  struck  the  ground  with  her  spear.  At  the 
right  stands  Poseidon.  Both  figures  draw  back  from  the  centre. 
Behind  Athena  is  her  chariot,  driven  by  Nike,  and  behind  Poseidon 
his  chariot,  with  Amphitrite  as  charioteer.  The  nude  male  figure 
beside  Athena's  chariot  is  probably  Hermes,  and  the  draped  female 


SCULPTURE 


243 


FlG.  183. —  The  "Fates";  eastern  pediment  of  the  Parthenon.     (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  190.) 

figure  that  corresponds  to  him  may  be  Iris.  The  recumbent  fig- 
ures at  the  ends  are  probably  a  river-god  and  a  nymph,  Cephisus 
(or  Ilisus)  and  Callirrhoe.  The  remaining  figures  have  been  in- 
terpreted (i)  as  the  gods  and  heroes  who  were  present  at  the  con- 
test, (2)  as  Attic  divinities  and  "heroes  who  symbolize  the  Attic 
people  and  their  interest  in  the  event,  or  (3)  as  personifications  of 
features  of  the  Attic  landscape.  Here,  as  in  the  eastern  pediment, 
the  loss  of  the  heads  of  the  originals,  the  imperfections  of  the 
drawings,  and  the  entire  loss  of  attributes,  render  a  certain  inter- 
pretation well-nigh  impossible. 

But  if  we  cannot  determine  in  all  its  details  the  meaning  which 
the  sculptor  intended  to  convey,  we  can  appreciate  the  beauty  of 
the  individual  figures  and,  especially  in  the  western  pediment,  the 
variety  and  rhythm  of  the  composition  (Fig.  184).  The  astonishing 
progress  made  by  Greek  sculptors  in  one  generation  is  seen  on 
comparison  of  these  works  with  the  pediment  sculptures  of  Olympia. 
Here  is  no  trace  of  archaic  stiffness,  no  lingering  influence  of  the 
old  law  of  frontality,  as  in  the  central  figures  at  Olympia,  no  diffi- 
culty in  the  treatment  of  drapery.  In  some  cases,  notably  in  that 
of  the  recumbent  "  Fate  "  in  the  eastern  pediment,  the  drapery  is 


244 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


treated  with  almost  excessive  oelicacy 
and  ease,  while  the  massive,  athletic 
figure  of  the  so-called  Theseus  shows 
complete  mastery  in  the  portrayal  of  the 
nude  form.  As  at  Olympia,  the  sculp- 
tures of  each  pediment  are  divided  into 
groups,  but  here  there  is  no  upright  fig- 
ure to  divide  the  whole  space  into  two 
equal  triangles,  and  the  correspondence 
of  individual  figures  in  the  two  sides  of 
the  pediment  is  no  longer  exact,  but  is 
varied,  a  nude  form  corresponding  to  a 
draped  figure,  a  male  to  a  female,  or 
a  bearded  man  to  a  youth.  Here  is  no 
monotonous  repetition  of  the  same  note, 
but  the  music  of  harmonious  chords. 

Of  all  the  remains  of  Greek  decorative 
sculpture  none  equal  the  sculptures  of 
the  Parthenon.   The  metopes  Authorship 
are  superior  alike  to  those  of    of  the 
Olympia,  of  Selinus,  and  of   of  thPe  I^ar- 
the    so-called    Theseum    at  thenon 
Athens ;  the  frieze,  in  the  variety  of  its 
design,  the  grace  and  dignity  of  its  human 
figures,  the  liveliness  and  truth  to  nature 
of  its  animals,  and  its  delicacy  of  work- 
manship surpasses  all  other  friezes,  and 
the   pediment  sculptures   are,   both   in 
composition  and   execution,  unrivalled. 
According  to  Plutarch  {Life  of  Pericles, 
Chapter  XIII)  Phidias  was  general  di- 
rector of  building  operations  under  the 
government  of  Pericles.    Phidias  was  also 
the  greatest  Athenian  sculptor,  and  the 
great  statue  of  Athena  in  the  Parthenon 


SCULPTURE 


245 


was  his  work.  On  these  grounds  the  decorative  sculptures  of 
the  Parthenon  have  been  ascribed  to  him.  But  if  Plutarch's  state- 
ment is  correct,  Phidias  would  hardly  have  been  able  to  accom- 
plish such  vast  works  in  addition  to  his  work  as  general  director  and 
as  artist  of  the  great  statue,  and  if,  as  may  be  the  case,  Plutarch  was 
misinformed,  there  is  no  real  reason  for  connecting  Phidias  directly 
with  the  decorative  sculptures.  Of  course  no  single  person  could 
have  executed  all  these  works  in  nine,  or  even  fifteen,  years,  and 
the  inequalities  of  execution  make  it  clear  that  several  hands  were 
employed.  It  has  therefore  been  assumed  that  Phidias  made  the 
models  and  had  the  actual  carving  done  by  others  under  his  direc- 
tion. This  is  possible,  though  even  this  would  have  been  a  great  task 
for  one  whose  time  was  occupied  with  other  work.  Moreover,  the 
metopes  differ  among  themselves  in  style  as  well  as  in  execution, 
and  no  one  of  them  has  any  close  stylistic  resemblance  to  the 
frieze,  nor  do  the  pediment  sculptures  show  any  such  similarity  to 
the  frieze  or  to  the  metopes  as  exists,  for  instance,  between  the  pedi- 
ment sculptures  and  the  metopes  at  Olympia.  Besides,  the  drapery 
of  the  pediment  figures  of  the  Parthenon  is  treated  with  vastly 
greater  freedom  than  was  that  of  the  Athena  Parthenos,  and  this 
cannot  be  wholly  explained  by  the  difference  between  decorative 
sculptures  and  a  cultus  statue.  That  all  the  decorative  sculptures 
of  the  Parthenon  breathe  the  spirit  of  Attic  art  as  developed  under 
the  influence  of  Phidias  is  true,  and  the  great  master  may  even 
have  aided  in  the  work  with  his  advice,  but  his  direct  participation 
in  it  seems,  on  the  whole,  improbable.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  sev- 
eral different  artists  designed  the  metopes  and  that  the  frieze  and 
the  pediment  sculptures  are  due  to  two  artists,  not  to  one.  In 
this  case,  the  glory  of  Phidias,  the  acknowledged  master  of  these 
great  masters,  is  only  enhanced. 

The  so-called  Theseum  at  Athens  is,  at  least  on  the  exterior,  the 
most  completely  preserved  of  all  Greek  temples.     The   sculptures 
statues  that  once  filled  the  pediments  are  lost,  unless,   of  the 
as  Bruno  Sauer  believes,  one  of  them  is  preserved 
in  the  Ny  Carlsberg  Museum  at  Copenhagen.     This  is  a  recum- 


246  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

bent  figure,  evidently  a  work  of  about  the  period  of  the  Parthenon, 
which  seems  to  have  formed  part  of  a  pediment  group  and  may 
well  have  had  a  place  on  the  "  Theseum."  The  metopes  and  friezes 
are  still  in  place  on  the  building.  Only  eighteen  metopes,  of  Parian 
marble,  are  adorned  with  reliefs,  ten  on  the  eastern  front  and  four  at 
the  eastern  end  of  the  north  and  south  sides.  The  reliefs  represent 
deeds  of  Heracles  and  Theseus.  The  designs  are  well  adapted  to 
the  square  field  and  show  great  ability  in  the  representation  of 
violent,  contorted  attitudes,  but  the  figures  are  now  so  defaced  that 
the  details  can  no  longer  be  appreciated.  The  continuous  friezes 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  well  preserved.  One  extends  across  the 
eastern  front  of  the  cella  and  the  passage  at  each  side  to  the  ex- 
terior architrave,  the  other,  at  the  western  end,  only  across  the  end 
of  the  cella.  These  friezes,  owing  to  the  smaller  size  of  the  temple, 
are  less  high  above  the  ground  than  was  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon, 
and  are  better  lighted.  They  are  in  rather  high  relief.  The 
eastern  frieze  represents  a  scene  of  battle  in  the  presence  of  seated 
divinities,  who  are  here,  as  in  the  eastern  frieze  of  the  Parthenon 
and  the  much  earlier  front  of  the  treasury  of  the  Cnidians  at  Delphi 
(p.  212),  supposed  to  be  invisible  to  the  human  beings  whose 
actions  are  sanctified  by  their  presence.  The  western  frieze  repre- 
sents the  combat  of  Centaurs  and  Lapiths.  Here,  even  more 
clearly  than  in  the  eastern  frieze,  the  composition  falls  into  groups 
of  two,  as  if  the  artist  had  been  in  the  habit  of  decorating  metopes. 
In  fact,  one  of  these  groups  is  almost  a  reproduction  of  one  of  the 
metopes  of  the  Parthenon.  In  other  respects,  these  friezes  are 
excellent,  both  in  design  and  execution.  In  general,  the  style  is 
such  as  may  reasonably  be  attributed  to  the  pupils  of  Myron, 
rather  than  to  Phidias  or  his  school. 

The  frieze  of  the  beautiful  little  Ionic  temple  of  Athena  Nike 
appears  to  belong  to  about  the  same  time  as  the  Parthenon  and 
the  "Theseum,"  but  may  be  a  little  later.  At  any  rate,  the  ten- 
dency to  employ  floating  draperies  as  a  means  of  filling  vacant 
spaces — a  tendency  which  is  very  strong  in  later  works  —  is  already 
noticeable.  The  frieze  is  only  about  eighteen  inches  high,  and 


SCULPTURE 


247 


the  figures  are  consequently  small.  At  the  eastern  end  is  an 
assembly  of  gods,  and  scenes  of  combat  between  Greeks  and  barba- 
rians, as  well  as  between  Greeks  and  other  Greeks,  Temple  of 
occupy  the  three  remaining  sides.  It  is  probable  that  Athena  Nike 
some  battle  of  the  Persian  War  is  intended.  Some  of  the  slabs 
are  in  place  on  the  temple,  the  rest 
in  the  British  Museum. 

About  the  bastion  on  which  the 
temple  stands  was  a  marble  balus- 
trade adorned  with  reliefs  which 
represented  winged  Victories  en- 
gaged in  various  activities.  One  is 
decking  a  trophy,  two  others  are 
leading  a  cow  to  sacrifice,  another 
has  raised  her  foot  and  is  doing 
something  to  her  sandal  (hardly  ty- 
ing it,  as  even  a  goddess  would  not 
tie  a  sandal  with  one  hand).  These 
reliefs,  which  are  unfortunately  frag- 
mentary, are  remarkable  for  their 
delicacy  of  execution  and  for  the 
extraordinary  transparency  of  the 
drapery,  which  discloses  almost  all 
the  details  of  the  beautiful  forms  beneath  (Fig.  185).  The  beau- 
tiful recumbent  "  Fate,"  from  the  eastern  pediment  of  Balustrade 
the  Parthenon,  shows  something  of  this  manner,  which 
here  reaches  its  fullest  development.  Admirable  as  these  charm- 
ing reliefs  are,  they  lack  something  of  the  exquisite  simplicity  of 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon.  The  artist  of  the  balustrade  seems  to 
wish  to  show  -his  consummate  skill,  not  merely  to  express  his 
beautiful  conceptions  in  beautiful  form.  Since  the  balustrade  was 
not  necessarily  made  when  the  temple  was  built,  its  date  cannot 
be  accurately  determined,  but  it  is  assigned  with  great  probability 
to  the  last  years  of  the  fifth  century. 

The  sculptures  of  the  Erechtheum  consist  of  a  frieze,  which 


FIG.  185. —  Victory  from  the  bal- 
ustrade of  the  temple  of 
Athena  Nike.  (Photograph.) 


248  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

encircled  the  entire  building,  and  six  Caryatids,  or,  as  they  are 
called  in  the  inscriptions,  maidens,  which  supported  the  /oof  of  the 
small  southern  porch  (Fig.  102,  p.  131).  Of  the  frieze  only  frag- 
ments remain  ;  they  are  of  Pentelic  marble,  and  the  surface  has  in 
almost  all  instances  suffered  severely.  The  work  does  not  seem 
The  Erech-  to  nave  been  of  surpassing  excellence,  and  the  frieze 
theum  is  interesting  chiefly  because  the  reliefs  were  carved 
separately  and  fastened  with  iron  dowels  on  a  background  of  dark 
gray  Eleusinian  stone.  The  representation  seems  to  have  been 
broken  up  into  separate  scenes,  which  were  probably  connected 
with  the  myth  and  the  cult  of  Erechtheus,  and  some  seated  figures 
doubtless  represented  deities.  The  figures  on  the  northern  porch 
were  slightly  larger  than  the  rest.  The  "  maidens "  are  more 
interesting.  One  is  now  in  the  British  Museum ;  the  others  are 
in  their  original  position,  where  the  place  of  the  missing  figure 
is  supplied  by  a  modern  reproduction.  Since  they  take  the  place 
of  columns  as  architectural  members,  these  figures  naturally  stand 
erect,  but  they  are  not  stiff  and  inelastic,  like  those  in  the  porch 
of  the  treasury  of  the  Cnidians  at  Delphi  (pp.  132,  154).  One  knee 
of  each  figure  is  bent  slightly,  giving  a  touch  of  life  and  actually 
adding  to  the  appearance  of  stability,  for  the  bent  knee  is  always 
the  one  toward  the  interior  of  the  porch,  —  an  arrangement  which 
seems  to  give  an  inward  tendency  to  the  supports,  like  the  inclina- 
tion of  Doric  columns.  The  drapery,  while  its  folds  are  for  the 
most  part  vertical,  like  the  channels  of  columns,  is  natural  and  ele- 
gant. The  faces  are  calm  and  dignified.  The  tall  calathus  (or  polus) 
that  rises  from  the  heads  of  the  figures  at  Delphi  is  here  reduced 
to  about  the  dimensions  of  a  Doric  echinus,  and  the  vertical 
space  thus  gained  is  added  to  the  height  of  the  maidens,  increas- 
ing their  importance  as  architectural  members.  The  heads  are 
somewhat  broader  than  the  Attic  norm,  a  peculiarity  which  may  be 
due  to  Argive  influence,  though  it  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
sculptor's  feeling  for  architectural  propriety.  These  figures  have 
been  often  imitated  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  but  have  never 
been  equalled  in  grace  and  dignity  or  in  technical  execution. 


SCULPTURE  249 

The  frieze  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassae  (Phigaleia), 
in  Arcadia,  is  a  work  of  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  for 
the  temple  was  built  by  Ictinus,  the  architect  of  the  Parthenon. 
Probably,  though  this  is  not  certain,  the  frieze  is  the  work  of  an 
Attic  sculptor.  It  represents  the  battles  of  Greeks  with 
Amazons,  and  of  Lapithae  with  Centaurs.  The  free  Bassae 
and  vigorous  design  is  distinguished  for  its  bold,  and  not  always 
successful,  attempts  at  foreshortening.  The  use  of  draperies  to 
fill  vacant  spaces  is  also  noticeable.  The  execution  is  not  equal 
to  the  design,  but  the  relief  is  important  as  an  example  of  a  large 
decorative  composition. 

Two  important  series  of  reliefs  of  the  fifth  century  are  from 
Lycia.  The  first,  from  Trysa  (Gjolbaschi),  now  in  Vienna,  once 
decorated  the  wall  that  surrounded  a  tomb.  The 
reliefs  are  carved  in  a  soft,  porous  stone,  which  has 
suffered  greatly  from  exposure.  The  scenes  represented  are  in 
part  historical,  like  those  on  Assyrian  reliefs,  but  for  the  most 
part  mythological,  among  them  the  battles  of  Greeks  and  Amazons 
and  Centaurs  and  Lapithae,  the  deeds  of  Theseus,  and  the  ven- 
geance of  Odysseus  on  the  suitors.  The  influence  of  Attic  art  is 
apparent,  for  some  of  the  types  are  identical  with  those  known 
from  the  other  reliefs  mentioned,  while  others  are  repeated  in 
Attic  vase  paintings.  In  general,  the  treatment  is  pictorial,  rather 
than  sculptural,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  artist  relied  upon  color 
for  much  of  his  effect.  Indeed,  since  some  of  the  most  famous 
Greek  painters,  including  Polygnotus,  were  living  and  working  in 
the  fifth  century,  it  is  impossible  that  their  influence  should  not 
have  been  felt  by  decorative  sculptors  as  well  as  by  vase  painters. 

The  second  Lycian  monument,  which  must  be  dated  shortly 
before  (or  possibly  just  after)  400  B.C.,  is  the  so-called  Nereid 
Monument,  now  in  the  British  Museum  (see  Fig.  135,  NereidMon- 
p.  177).  This  is  a  small  building  like  a  temple,  stand-  ument 
ing  on  a  high  foundation.  Between  the  columns  are  draped 
female  figures,  probably  Nereids.  They  are  represented  in  rapid 
motion,  and  their  floating  drapery  recalls  that  of  the  Nike  of  Pae- 


25° 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


onius.  The  style  is  apparently  the  result  of  Attic  influence  upon 
the  earlier  Ionic  style.  The  monument  was  further  adorned  with 
four  friezes,  —  two  of  which  were  probably  on  the  high  foundation, 
one  above  the  architrave,  and  one  at  the  top  of  the  cella.  The 
scenes  are  in  part  similar  to  those  of  the  reliefs  from  Trysa,  battle 

scenes  and  sieges,  but 

I— -_£  -  the  reliefs  of  the  Ne- 

reid Monument,  being 
_v          -sjjs        \,  of  Parian  marble,  are 

much  better  preserved, 
and  were  probably  bet- 
ter executed.  Here,  as 
in  the  figures  of  the 
Nereids,  the  spread  of 
Attic  influence  to  the 
coast  of  Asia  is  plainly 
to  be  seen. 

Reliefs  were  em- 
ployed not  only  for  the 
decoration  Tombstones 
of  build-  and  votive 
ings,  but  reliefs 
also  in  other  ways  — 
for  votive  offerings  at 
shrines  or  temples,  for 
headings  of  inscrip- 
tions, and  for  tomb- 
stones. Most  of  the 
sculptured  tombstones 
date,  however,  from  the  fourth  century.  A  fine  example  of  the 
votive  class  is  the  large  relief  from  Eleusis,  now  in  Athens,  which 
represents  Demeter  and  Cora  (Persephone)  with  the  youthful 
Triptolemus,  or  possibly  Bacchus.  This  still  retains,  especially  in 
the  treatment  of  the  hair  and  the  drapery,  some  qualities  of  archa- 
ism, and  should  probably  be  assigned  to  a  time  shortly  earlier 


FIG.  186.  —  Relief  from  Eleusis.     (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  7.) 


SCULPTURE  251 

than  the  decoration  of  the  Parthenon  (Fig.  186).  Another  relief 
of  exceptional  charm,  though  not  of  exceptionally  fine  workman- 
ship, is  the  so-called  Mourning  Athena,  in  Athens.  This  was  ap- 
parently the  heading  of  an  inscription.  It  is  a  work  of  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  or  a  trifle  later.  Perhaps  Athena  is 
gazing  pensively  at  a  list  of  the  Athenians  who  had  fallen  in  one 
of  the  many  campaigns  of  that  period  of  enterprise  and  activity. 
Such  works  as  these  serve  to  show  how  general  was  the  employ- 
ment of  artists  and  how  great  was  the  ability  of  even  the  unknown 
and  unimportant  sculptors  of  this  period. 

THE  FOURTH  CENTURY 

In  the  fifth  century  Greek  sculptors  advanced  from  archaic 
stiffness  and  mannerism  to  grace  and  simplicity,  overcame  the 
difficulties  in  the  representation  of  human  beings  and  animals 
(both  as  regards  general  structure  and  such  important  details  as 
the  eyes),  invented  the  chief  types  of  gods  and  god-  The  fifth  and 
desses,  learned  to  present  floating  and  clinging  drapery  fourth  cen- 
with  great  skill,  and  created  decorative  compositions  turies 
which  have  remained  unsurpassed  even  to  the  present  time.  It 
might  be  supposed  that  further  development  was  impossible,  and 
it  is  true  that  in  some  respects  the  decadence  of  Greek  sculpture 
begins  with  the  fourth  century.  The  artist  of  the  fifth  century  pre- 
sents his  ideal  with  all  the  truth  to  nature  he  can  command,  and  his 
ideal  is  one  of  dignity  and  purity,  unsullied  by  excessive  desire  on  the 
artist's  part  to  show  his  skill  at  the  expense  of  the  grandeur  and 
simplicity  of  his  work.  In  the  fourth  century  the  personality  of 
the  artist  is  put  forward  with  greater  consciousness  ;  there  is  more 
striving  for  effect,  and  consequently  less  simplicity  and  dignity. 
Herein  is  the  beginning  of  decadence.  But  there  is  also  real  prog- 
ress in  the  fourth  century,  and  even  later,  for  new  problems  are 
attacked  and  mastered.  Portraiture  becomes  more  successful  as 
it  grows  more  personal,  and  the  types  of  the  gods,  especially  of 
the  younger  deities,  are  more  completely  differentiated  and  fixed. 


252 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


Sentiment  and  emotion  (TTOI^OS),  which  are  almost  completely  ab- 
sent from  sculpture  of  the  fifth  century,  are  expressed  with  increas- 
ing ease  and  with  ever  greater  prominence  in  the  works  of  the 
century  that  follows.  This  is  real  progress,  in  so  far  as  it  shows 

ability  to  do  what  earlier 
artists  could  not  do ;  but 
unfortunately  this  progress 
brings  with  it  a  loss  of  dig- 
nity and  a  tendency  to  the 
representation  of  casual  and 
momentary  personal  quali- 
ties. The  desire  for  novelty 
in  expression,  which  is  ap- 
parently restrained  in  the 
fourth  century  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  almost  any 
expression  of  emotion  is  a 
novelty,  leads  in  later  times 
to  such  brilliant  but  exag- 
gerated and  even  unlovely 
creations  as  the  reliefs  of 
the  great  altar  at  Pergamon 
or  the  Laocoon  group. 

A  characteristic  work  of 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
century    is    the    Cephisodo- 
group  of  Eirene        tus 
and  the  infant  Plutus  (Fig. 
187),  by  Cephisodotus,  who 


FIG.  187.  —  Copy  of  Eirene  and  Plutus  by 
Cephisodotus.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  43.) 


appears  to  have  been  a  relative,  perhaps  the  father  or  the  elder 
brother,  of  the  famous  Praxiteles.  This  work  is  known  through  a 
copy  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich.1  It  is  generally  assumed  that 

1  A  better  replica  of  the  torso  was  found  not  long  ago  in  Rome,  and  is  now 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York.  A  better  replica  of  the  child  is 
in  the  National  Museum  at  Athens. 


SCULPTURE  753 

the  original  was  set  up  at  Athens  about  370  B.C.,  but  its  date  may 
be  somewhat  earlier,  possibly  even  slightly  before  400  B.C.  The 
goddess  of  Peace  is  holding  the  infant  god  of  Wealth  on  her  arm, 
and  gazing  upon  him  with  maternal  tenderness.  In  this  expres- 
sion of  sentiment  the  spirit  of  the  fourth  century  is  evident,  but 
the  drapery  recalls  the  style  of  the  days  of  Phidias  rather  than 
the  more  elaborate  technique  of  the  last  years  of  the  fifth  century, 
such  as  is  seen  in  the  reliefs  of  the  balustrade  of  the  temple  of 
Athena  Nike.  A  further  development  of  the  same  tendency  is 
seen  in  the  drapery  of  the  magnificent  Demeter  of  Cnidus  in  the 
British  Museum,  a  work  of  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  most  famous  sculptors  of  the  fourth  century  were  Scopas  of 
Paros,  Praxiteles  of  Athens,  and  Lysippus  of  Sicyon.  Scopas 
and  Praxiteles  worked  almost  exclusively  in  marble,  Scopas 
Lysippus  in  bronze.  Scopas  was  apparently  the  eldest,  Praxiteles, 
for  he  was  employed  in  the  building  of  the  temple  of  LysiPPus 
Athena  Alea,  at  Tegea,  probably  not  many  years  after  the  destruc- 
tion, in  394  B.C.,  of  the  earlier  temple.1  But  he  must  then  have 
been  a  young  man,  as  he  took  part  in  the  decoration  of  the  Mauso- 
leum at  Halicarnassus,  which  was  not  finished  until  after  349  B.C. 
It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  he  was  born  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  fifth  century  and  died  early  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth. 
Praxiteles  was  perhaps  twenty  years  younger  than  Scopas,  for  his 
earliest  known  work  —  a  group  of  Leto,  Apollo,  and  Artemis,  at 
Man  tinea  —  belongs  to  a  time  not  far  from  370  B.C.  He  seems  to 
have  died  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  century,  for  there  is  no  rec- 
ord or  legend  of  his  coming  into  contact  with  Alexander. 
Lysippus,  the  favorite  sculptor  of  Alexander,  is  said  to  have  lived 
at  least  to  the  founding  of  Cassandreia  on  the  site  of  Potidaea,  in 
316  B.C.  As  he  lived  to  a  good  old  age,  his  birth  cannot  well 
have  been  later  than  386  B.C.,  and  was  probably  earlier.  The 

1  The  style  of  the  fragments  of  sculpture  from  this  temple  seems  to  point  to 
a  time  somewhat  later  than  394  B.C.  Possibly  the  temple  was  not  immediately 
rebuilt.  In  that  case,  the  birth  of  Scopas  may  perhaps  have  taken  place  even 
after  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century. 


254 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


three  great  sculptors  were,  then,  contemporaries,  though  Lysippus 
may  have  been  twenty  years  or  more  younger  than  Scopas. 

Ancient  writers  speak  of  the  emotional  quality  of  the  works  of 
Scopas,  the  intensity  of  expression  in  his  faces.  These  qualities 
are  very  evident  in  four  heads  from  the  pediments  of  the  temple 
of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegea ;  and  since  Pausanias  says  that  Scopas 
was  the  architect  of  the  temple,  and  also  made  some 
of  the  statues  in  the  interior,  the  pediment  sculptures 
were  probably  his  work.  In  the  eastern  pediment  the  Calydonian 
boar  hunt  was  represented,  in  the  western  the  combat  between 


Scopas 


FlG.  188. —  Heads  from  Tegea.     (From  casts.     Antike  Denkmiiler,  I,  PI.  35.) 

Achilles  and  Telephus.  The  extant  heads  (Fig.  i88),of  local  (Doli- 
ana)  marble,  have  the  broad  form  characteristic  of  the  works  of 
Polyclitus,  but  the  eyes  are  set  deep  under  overhanging  brows,  and 
are  wide  open,  with  an  upward^  far-away  gaze.  The  mouths  have 
slightly  parted  lips,  and  the  whole  expression  is  one  of  emotional 
intensity. 

At  the  same  place  a  female  head  and  torso,  both  of  Parian 
marble,  were  found,  which  agree  in  size  with  the  male  heads.  If 
the  torso  and  the  head  belong  together,  the  figure  may  well  be  that  of 
Atalanta,  and  then  belongs  to  the  pediment  group,  but  this  is  not 


SCULPTURE  255 

probable.  The  head  shows  much  less  facial  expression  than  the 
male  heads,  but  the  distended  nostrils  and  slightly  parted  lips  dis- 
close something  of  the  character  of  the  male  faces.  On  the  whole, 
the  probability  that  the  head  is  a  work  of  Scopas  is  strong,  even 
should  it  be  proved  not  to  belong  to  the  torso. 

The  statements  of  ancient  writers,  who  mention  many  works  by 
Scopas,  make  it  probable  that  his  earlier  years  were  spent  in  con- 
tinental Greece,  chiefly  in  the  Peloponnesus.  About  350  B.C.  he 
was  at  Halicarnassus,  and  the  latter  part  of  his  life  was  probably 
passed  in  Asia  Minor.  The  titles  of  some  of  his  works  may  serve  to 
indicate  their  variety  and,  to  some  extent,  their  qualities.  Among 
them  were  a  colossal  seated  Ares,  a  youthful  Asclepius,  a  Bacchante 
in  frenzy,  a  group  of  Eros,  Himeros,  and  Pothos  (Passion,  Desire, 
and  Yearning),  and  a  composition,  probably  in  relief,  representing 
Thetis  and  Achilles,  with  Poseidon,  Nereids  riding  on  dolphins  or 
fabulous  sea  animals,  Tritons,  and  other  marine  deities  and  crea- 
tures. The  three  forms  of  love  —  Eros,  Himeros,  and  Pothos  — 
must  have  been  distinguished  chiefly  by  variety  of  facial  expres- 
sion ;  the  frenzied  Bacchante  doubtless  exhibited  her  frenzy  by 
her  violent  motion  and  her  expression  of  wild  excitement,  and  the 
description  of  the  cortege  of  Achilles  and  Thetis  suggests  a  group 
of  varied  and  fantastic  forms  in  motion  restless  as  that  of  the  sea. 
Probably  many  of  the  representations  of  marine  beings  produced 
in  later  times  were  inspired  by  this  composition. 

The  study  of  the  heads  from  Tegea  enables  us  to  judge  in  some 
measure  of  the  means  by  which  Scopas  represented  facial  expres- 
sion, —  such  as  deep-set,  wide-open  eyes,  parted  lips,  and  signifi- 
cant pose  of  the  head,  —  and  not  a  few  statues,  in  which  some  or  all 
of  these  characteristics  are  combined  with  the  general  qualities  of 
the  work  of  the  fourth  century,  are  regarded  as  copies  of  statues 
by  Scopas  and  his  school,1  though  the  certain  identification  of  any 
of  them  with  any  of  his  recorded  works  is  difficult.  But  it  is  clear 
that  they  show  his  influence,  and  equally  clear  that  his  influence 
continued  to  be  powerful  long  after  his  death. 
1  See  B.  Graef,  Mitt.  d.  k.  deittschen  arch.  Instituts,  Roem.  Abt.t  1889,  p.  199. 


?56  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Even  before  the  discovery  of  the  heads  at  Tegea,  the  Meleager 
of  the  Vatican  and  its  replicas l  were  identified  as  more  or  less 
altered  copies  of  a  work  of  Scopas,  and  this  identification  has  been 
made  only  more  probable  by  the  study  of  the  heads.  This  work 
does  not,  however,  show  the  qualities  of  the  art  of  Scopas  so 
clearly  as  some  others ;  for  instance,  the  Heracles  at  Lansdowne 
House.2  Of  the  work  of  Scopas  at  the  Mausoleum  and  at 
Ephesus,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  speak  later. 

Pausanias  mentions,  among  the  statues  set  up  in  the  Heraeum 
at  Olympia,  a  Hermes  of  stone  (marble),  carrying  the  infant 
Dionysus,  and  adds,  "  it  is  a  work  of  Praxiteles."  A 
statue  corresponding  to  this  description  was  found  by 
the  German  excavators  among  the  ruins  of  the  Heraeum,  some- 
what broken,  to  be  sure,  but  still  in  a  remarkable  state  of  pres- 
ervation. This  is  the  only  attested  extant  original  work  of 
Praxiteles,  and  is  therefore  the  basis  of  all  accurate  study  of  his  style. 
It  is,  moreover,  the  only  certainly  identified  original  work  of  any 
famous  Greek  artist,  for  the  other  extant  originals  are  anonymous, 
and  the  known  works  of  the  famous  artists  exist  only  in  copies. 
Comparison  of  the  Hermes  with  the  identified  copies  of  works  of 
Praxiteles  shows  how  far  the  copies  are  from  reproducing  the 
originals  in  their  finer  details,  even  when  there  is  no  difference  of 
material,  and  certainly  when  a  bronze  original  is  represented  by 
a  marble  copy,  as  is  the  case,  for  instance,  with  the  works  of  Poly- 
clitus  and  Lysippus,  the  difference  must  be  still  greater. 

The  figure  of  the  Hermes  (Fig.  189)  is  powerful,  but  graceful 
and  not  heavy,  more  slender  than  the  Polyclitan  canon.  The 
rhythmic  curve  of  the  body  seems  to  be  a  development  from  the 
curve  of  the  Polyclitan  figures,  but  here  the  rhythm  is  more  pro- 
tiounced,  and  the  curve  is  greater.  This  would  be  impossible,  or 
at  least  unnatural,  but  for  the  addition  of  the  tree-trunk,  upon 

1  The  best  replica  of  the  head  is  in  the  Villa  Medici  (the  Ecole  francaise) 
at  Rome.     A  good  replica  of  head  and  torso  is  in  the  Fogg  Art  Museum  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

2  Now  ascribed  by  some  critics  to  Lysippus. 


SCULPTURE 


257 


which  the  god  leans.  This  graceful  curve  is  characteristic  of  all 
the  statues  ascribed  to  Praxiteles,  and  all  have,  in  one  form  or 
another,  a  support,  without  which  the  posture  would  be  almost  im- 
possible in  marble.  Bronze  statues,  owing  to  the  strength  and 
comparative  lightness  of  their  material  (since  they  are  cast  hollow), 
require,  as  a  rule,  no  supports, 
but  the  case  is  different  with 
marble  statues,  as  is  seen  in  the 
marble  copies  of  bronze  origi- 
nals. Praxiteles  displayed  great 
ability  in  making  the  necessary 
supports  contribute  to  the 
beauty  of  his  works. 

Hermes,  carrying  the  infant 
Dionysus  on  his  arm  and  his 
herald's  staff  in  his  left  hand, 
has  stopped  to  play  with  the 
child  by  holding  up  something, 
doubtless  a  bunch  of  grapes,  in 
his  right  hand.  He  leans  upon 
a  stump,  over  which  he  has 
thrown  his  cloak.  The  action 
is  natural  and  simple,  and  the 
artist  has  seized  the  opportunity 
to  produce  a  most  perfect  exam- 
ple of  drapery  in  marble.  Here 
is  nothing  affected  or  artificial, 
but  the  natural  folds  of  a  rather 
heavy  garment  falling  over  an 
upright  support  are  most  accu- 
rately reproduced.  The  folds  are  not  long,  parallel  grooves,  nor 
have  they  sharp  dividing  lines,  but  they  pass  into  each  other 
in  almost  imperceptible  curves,  while  the  broader  surfaces  are 
broken  by  small,  shallow  depressions.  All  this  is  a  great  advance 
beyond  what  was  attained  in  the  most  elaborate  drapery  of  the 

GREEK  ARCH. — IJ 


FlG.  189.  —  Hermes  of  Praxiteles. 
(Olymfia,  III,  PI.  XLIX.) 


258  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

fifth  century,  and  testifies  to  most  careful  study  of  real  cloth.  It 
is  perhaps  worth  while  to  note  in  passing  that  no  such  exquisite 
details  are  found  in  any  of  the  Roman  copies,  by  which  alone  other 
works  of  famous  Greek  artists  are  known  to  us.  In  the  figure  of 
Hermes  the  same  accuracy  of  detail  is  noticeable,  though  the  dif- 
ference between  this  and  earlier  work  is  less  tangible  here  than  in 
the  drapery.  The  head  is  a  development  of  the  Attic  type  of  the 
fifth  century,  with  relatively  narrow  chin  and  broad  forehead,  as 
if  to  emphasize  the  intellectual,  rather  than  the  animal,  nature. 
The  forehead  is  not  smooth,  but  is  divided  by  a  horizontal 
groove  near  the  middle  of  its  height  and  an  almost  triangular  pro- 
jection above  the  nose.  The  eyes  are  not  really  fixed  upon  the 
infant  Dionysus,  but  rather  look  beyond  him,  with  a  dreamy, 
almost  pensive,  expression. 

The  hair  deserves  especial  attention.  In  earlier  works  the  hair 
appears  as  a  layer  of  uniform  thickness,  the  outer  surface  of  which 
is  divided  by  nearly  parallel  grooves,  as  in  the  Apollo  from  the 
western  pediment  at  Olympia,  or  marked  with  circles  and  dots, 
as  in  the  Harmodius  by  Critius  and  Nesiotes.  The  locks  gener- 
ally end  in  stiff,  circular  curls.  Sometimes  the  hair  appears  merely 
as  a  smooth  surface,  in  which  case  the  details  must  have  been 
added  in  color.  In  bronze  works  the  hair  lies  fl.it;  on  the  head, 
the  locks  being  represented  in  very  low  relief,  except  where  they 
are  made  of  separate  pieces  and  fastened  on.  Marble  copies  of 
bronze  works  naturally  reproduce  more  or  less  the  appearance 
of  the  originals.  In  the  Hermes  an  entirely  different  method  is 
adopted.  The  short,  thick  locks  project  from  the  head,  forming  an 
irregularly  broken  surface,  and  the  whole  is  left  comparatively 
rough.  There  is  no  attempt  to  represent  the  individual  hairs,  but 
the  effect  of  hair  is  produced  by  the  avoidance  of  such  an  attempt. 
Whether  this  "  impressionist  "  method  was  an  invention  of  Prax- 
iteles cannot  now  be  determined.  At  any  rate,  it  is  admirably 
carried  out  in  the  Hermes  and  entirely  supplanted  the  earlier 
methods. 

The  statue  of  Hermes  is  a  beautiful  and  almost  perfect  work ; 


SCULPTURE 


259 


but  in  the  treatment  of  the  infant  Dionysus,  Praxiteles  was  less 
successful.  The  attitude  and  action  are  too  mature  for  a  child  of 
such  small  size,  unless,  indeed,  which  is  not  probable,  Praxiteles 
wished  to  show  that  an  infant  god  is  different  from  a  human  in- 
fant. The  head  and  body  are  much  broken,  but  are  well  enough 
preserved  to  show  that  the  child 
was  a  far  less  perfect  work  than 
the  Hermes.  The  successful  ren- 
dering of  infantile  forms  belongs 
to  a  later  time. 

The  Hermes  of  Olympia  was 
not  one  of  the  most  famous  works 
of  Praxiteles.  Far  more  famous 
were  his  statues  of  Eros,  of  Satyrs, 
and  of  Aphrodite  ;  and  most  fa- 
mous of  all  was  the  Aphrodite  of 
Cnidus,  the  type  of  which  is 
known  through  ancient  descrip- 
tions and  coins.  The  best  copy 
is  in  the  Vatican  (Fig.  190),  a  less 
excellent  one  in  Munich.  Here 
we  see  the  same  rhythmic  curve 
as  in  the  Hermes,  but  the  sup- 
port (for  such  it  really  is  in  the 
marble)  has  the  form  of  drapery, 
which  the  goddess  holds  and 
raises  from  the  urn  below,  unless, 
indeed,  she  is  letting  it  fall.  The 
urn  indicates  a  bath,  but  whether 
the  goddess  is  about  to  bathe  or 
is  on  the  point  of  clothing  herself  after  a  bath  is  uncertain.  She 
stands  conscious  of  her  beauty,  as  of  her  nudity,  but  without 
coquetry  or  shame.  Here,  as  in  the  Hermes,  the  drapery  and 
the  hair  are  not  smooth,  like  the  skin,  but  are  so  treated  as  to 
indicate  their  texture.  The  dreamy  look  cf  the  Hermes  is  here 


FlG.  190.  —  Aphrodite  of  Cnidus; 
Vatican.  (Jour.  Hell.  Stud.  1887, 
PI.  LXXX.) 


260 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


further  softened  and  feminized  by  the  narrowing  of  the  eyes,  which 
even  in  the  Hermes  are  in  strong  contrast  to  the  wide-open,  round 
eyes  of  most  earlier  works.  The  Aphrodite  of  the  Vatican,  though 
only  a  copy,  needs  but  to  be  compared  with  other  statues  of  the 

nude  Aphrodite  to  prove  its  su- 
periority in  grace,  dignity,  and 
purity.  Yet  here,  as  in  the  Her- 
mes, human  personality  is  present, 
and  it  is  but  a  step  to  the  repre- 
sentation of  human  imperfections. 
Several  types  of  Satyrs  are 
clearly  of  Praxitelean  origin,  and 
among  them  none  is  more  beauti- 
ful or  preserved  in  a  greater  num- 
ber of  replicas  than  that  made 
famous  by  Hawthorne  in  The 
Marble  Faunl  Here  the  attitude 
of  easy  grace  has  become  a  posture 
of  graceful  indolence.  Not  only 
is  there  a  rhythmic  curve  of  the 
body,  but  the  whole  figure  is  in- 
clined toward  the  supporting  tree 
(Fig.  191).  The  same  peculiarity 
is  seen  in  another  statue  by  Prax- 
iteles, the  Apollo  Sauroctonos 
(Lizard-slayer),  and  it  has  been 
suggested  that  the  sculptor's  prog- 
ress may  be  traced  in  the  greater 
tendency  to  such  inclination.  In 
this  Satyr  the  different  treatment  of  texture  in  the  nude  parts, 
the  fawn  skin,  and  the  hair  is  again  to  be  noticed. 

The  two  famous  figures  of  Eros  —  at  Thespiae  and  at  Parium  — 
have  not  as  yet  been  certainly  identified  in  copies.     Many  figures 

1  The  replica  of  the  torso  in  the  Louvre  is  finer  than  the  more  completely 
preserved  copy  in  the  Capitoline  Museum. 


FIG.  191.  —  Praxitelean  Satyr.  Rome. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  377.) 


SCULPTURE 


261 


of  Eros,  as  of  Satyrs,  exist,  which  certainly  owe  their  origin  to 
Praxiteles,  but  whether  they  are  copies  of  his  works,  or  copies 
of  works  of  his  school,  or  merely  later  adaptations,  cannot  in  all 
cases  be  determined.  His  influence  lasted  throughout  antiquity, 
and  copies  and  adaptations  of  his  works  must  always  have  been 
popular,  even  at  times  when  the  general  tendency  of  art  seems 
to  have  been  away  from  his  quiet  and  gentle  sentiment  in  the 
direction  of  greater  realism. 

Pausanias,  in  speaking  of  the  group  of  Leto,  Apollo,  and  Arte- 
mis, which  Praxiteles  made  for  Mantinea,  says  that  on  the  base  of  it 


FlG.  192.  —  Relief  from  Mantinea.    (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  468.) 

was  "  a  Muse  and  Marsyas  playing  the  flute."  On  one  of  three 
marble  slabs  found  at  Mantinea  and  now  in  the  National  Museum 
at  Athens,  Marsyas  is  represented  playing  the  double  flute  before 
the  seated  Apollo,  while  between  them  stands  a  Phrygian  with  a 
knife,  ready  to  flay  Marsyas  for  his  presumption  in  challenging 
Apollo  to  a  contest  in  music.  On  the  other  slabs  are  figures  of 
six  Muses.  The  brief  description  of  Pausanias  refers,  without 
doubt,  to  this  relief.  The  slabs  are  of  appropriate  size  for  the 
decoration  of  a  base,  and  were  certainly  attached  to  some  struc- 
ture. The  execution  of  the  reliefs  is  good,  but  not  exquisite,  as 


262  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

is  that  of  the  Hermes.  Apparently  the  carving  was  entrusted  to 
an  assistant,  but  the  design  is  probably  by  Praxiteles  himself,  and 
is  the  only  example  of  his  decorative  work  (Fig.  192).  The  calm 
dignity  of  Apollo  is  admirably  contrasted  with  the  excitement  of 
his  wild  opponent ;  the  group  is  well  composed,  and  the  six  Muses, 
with  their  varied  poses  and  graceful  draperies,  form  an  appro- 
priate setting. 

The  recorded  works  of  Praxiteles,  some  of  which  were  bronze, 
are  very  numerous  and  include  statues  of  various  deities,  of 
nymphs  and  maenads,  and  two  statues  of  the  famous  courtesan 
Phryne.  So  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge,  and  the  material  is 
abundant,  though  not  exhaustive,  his  works  were  distinguished 
for  grace,  elegance,  exquisite  workmanship,  quiet  sentiment,  and 
self-restraint.  In  all  this  he  was  the  legitimate  successor  of  the 
Attic  school  of  the  fifth  century.  That  his  imitators  allowed 
grace  to  degenerate  into  weakness,  and  sentiment  into  sentimen- 
tality, does  not  detract  from  his  greatness. 

Famous  contemporaries  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles  were  Euphra- 
nor  (who  was  also  a  painter),  Bryaxis,  Leochares,  and  Thrasymedes. 
Euphranor,  The  last  named  was  the  artist  of  the  chryselephantine 
Bryaxis,  statue  of  Asclepius  at  Epidaurus,  the  general  appear- 
Thrasy-68  ance  °^  w^cn  >s  known  through  votive  reliefs  found 
medes  at  Epidaurus.  Probably  this  statue  had  much  influ- 

ence in  fixing  the  type  of  the  god  of  healing  as  a  dignified,  draped, 
seated  figure,  with  head  and  face  resembling  that  of  Zeus.  Timo- 
theus  is  known  to  have  made  some  of  the  acroteria  and  models 
for  other  sculptures  for  the  temple  of  Asclepius  at  Epidaurus, 
about  375  B.C.  Some  acroteria  from  this  temple,  representing 
Nereids  mounted  on  horses,  have  been  found,  as  have  also  some 
figures  from  the  pediment  groups,  which  represented  combats 
of  Greeks  with  Amazons,  and  Lapithae  with  Centaurs.  In  the 
extant  fragments,  the  forms  and  postures  are  full  of  life  and  vigor, 
and  the  clinging,  floating  draperies  are  wrought  in  the  manner 
of  Attic  work  of  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  A  famous  work  of 
Leochares  was  the  statue  of  Ganymedes  carried  off  by  the  eagle  of 


SCULPTURE 


263 


Zeus.  A  copy  of  this  has  been  recognized  in  a  small  marble  group 
in  the  Vatican  which,  although  it  does  not  enable  us  to  judge  of  the 
execution  of  the  original,  shows  how  Leochares  represented  the 
youthful  figure  borne  aloft, 
while  his  garment  floats  about 
him  and  his  gaze  is  fixed  upon 
the  bright  Olympus,  where  he 
is  to  dwell  among  the  gods. 

Other  works  of  Bryaxis, 
Leochares,  and  Timotheus  are 
The  Mauso-  mentioned  by  an- 

leum  cient  writers,  and 
Pliny  states  that  they  worked 
with  Scopas  at  the  Mausoleum 
at  Halicarnassus,1  where  each 
artist  is  said  to  have  decorated 
one  side  of  the  building.  The 
remains  of  the  rich  decora- 
tions of  the  Mausoleum,  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  consist 
of  two  colossal  statues  of 
Mausolus  and  Artemisia,  va- 
rious other  statues,  some  of 
which  are  equestrian,  a  colos- 
sal chariot  with  four  horses, 
several  lions,  many  slabs  of  a 
fine  frieze  representing  Greeks 
and  Amazons,  fragments  of 
two  other  friezes,  one  of  which 
represented  a  chariot  race,  the 


FlG.  193. —  Mausolus.     (Brunn-Bruck- 
mann,  PI.  241.) 


other  Greeks  and  Centaurs,  and  several  panels  with  reliefs.  The 
chariot  stood  on  the  top  of  the  building,  and  the  frieze  of  Ama- 
zons was  probably  above  the  architrave,  but  the  position  of  the 
other  sculptures  has  not  been  accurately  determined. 

1  Instead  of  Timotheus,  Vitruvius  mentions  Praxiteles. 


264 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


The  statues  of  Mausolus  and  Artemisia  are  dignified  and 
impressive,  evidently  real  portraits,  but  not  emphasizing  minor 
individual  peculiarities  unduly.  Of  the  two,  the  statue  of  Mauso- 
lus (Fig.  193)  is  better,  and  also  better  preserved.  Here  the  type 
of  the  face  and  the  arrangement  of  the  hair  are  clearly  not  Greek, 
but  the  Greek  artist  has  produced  an  admirable  likeness  of  the 
vigorous  and  thoughtful  Carian  prince. 

The  Amazon  frieze,  although  by  no  means  entirely  preserved,  is 
the  most  extensive  extant  relief  of  the  fourth  century  (Fig.  194). 


FlG.  194.  —  Part  of  Amazon  frieze  of  Mausoleum.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  97.) 

In  the  frieze  from  Phigaleia  (p.  249)  the  figures  are  crowded 
together ;  here  they  are  loosely  grouped  ;  at  Phigaleia  each  slab 
contains  a  group,  so  that  the  order  of  the  slabs  might  almost  be 
changed  without  injuring  the  composition,  while  here  one  figure 
frequently  occupies  parts  of  two  slabs ;  at  Phigaleia  the  groups 
consist  usually  of  two  persons ;  here  the  number  varies.  There 
is  also  here  far  greater  variety  in  the  costumes,  weapons,  and  at- 
titudes, the  drapery  is  better  designed,  the  figures  are  more  indi- 
vidual, more  slender,  their  attitudes  more  graceful,  and  their  faces 
more  expressive.  In  some  respects  this  frieze  has  more  resem- 
blance to  the  small  frieze  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike  than  to 
the  frieze  from  Phigaleia.  Evidently  the  artist,  or  artists,  followed 


SCULPTURE 


265 


the  traditions  and  adopted  the  practices  of  the  Attic  school.  In 
execution  the  parts  of  the  frieze  are  not  uniform,  and  certain 
peculiarities  of  costume  and  of  design  occur  on  some  slabs,  but 
not  on  others.  Attempts  have  therefore  been  made  to  assign  the 
various  parts  of  the  work  to  the  artists  mentioned  by  Vitruvius 
and  Pliny,  but  their  re- 
sults have  not  met  with 
universal  acceptance. 
It  is  perhaps  enough  to 
consider  the  frieze  as 
whole,  remembering 
that  it  is  the  work  of  a 
famous  artist,  or  famous 
artists,  and  shows  at 
their  best  the  qualities 
of  decorative  sculpture 
at  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century. 

The  temple  of  Arte- 
mis at  Ephesus  was 
burned  in  356  B.C.  The 
new  temple  was  there- 
fore strictly  contem- 
poraneous with  the 
Mausoleum,  and  Pliny 
states  that  one  of  the 
thirty  -  six  sculptured 


FIG.  195.  —  Sculptured  drum  from  Ephesus. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  52.) 


columns  was  by  Scopas.  Only  one  sculptured  drum  from  this 
temple  is  sufficiently  well  preserved  to  give  a  good  Artemisium 
idea  of  its  style  and  design  (Fig.  195),  and  here  the  at  Ephesus 
quiet  grace  of  the  figures  recalls  the  style  and  shows  the  influence, 
not  of  Scopas,  but  of  Praxiteles.  The  subject  is  probably  Alcestis 
between  Thanatos,  the  armed  and  winged  god  of  Death,  and 
Hermes  Psychopompus.  This  drum  (and  other  fragments  from 
Ephesus),  no  less  than  the  sculptures  of  the  Mausoleum,  shows 


266 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Niobe  group 


the  extension  of  the  Attic  school  to  Asia  Minor  in  the  fourth 
century. 

The  famous  group  of  Niobe  and  her  children  l  exhibits  charac- 
teristics of  the  styles  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles,  which  may  account 
for  Pliny's  statement  that  it  was  doubtful  to  which  of 
the  two  it  should  be  ascribed.  The  group  was  prob- 
ably brought  by  Sosias  from  Asia  Minor  to  Rome  in  35  B.C.,  and  is 

therefore  another  example 
of  Attic  sculpture  in  Asia 
Minor.  But  since  the  stat- 
ues combine  the  gentle 
grace  and  sentiment  of 
Praxiteles  with  the  violent 
motion  and  passion  of 
Scopas,  it  is  probable  that 
the  group  is  the  work  of  a 
younger  artist,  perhaps  even 
an  artist  of  a  later  century, 
who  had  studied  the  works 
of  the  two  great  masters 
and  developed  a  composite, 
though  still  Attic,  style  of 
his  own.  The  picturesque 
character  of  the  group  and 
the  difficulty  of  arranging 
it  as  a  decoration  for  a 
building  add  to  the  prob- 
ability of  its  later  origin. 
The  individual  figures,  how- 
ever, are  conceived  and  de- 


FlG.  196.  —  Niobe.     (Brunn-Bruckmann, 
PI.  3"-) 


signed  in  the  spirit  of  the  Attic  art  of  the  fourth  century  (Fig.  196). 

lThe  statues  in  Florence  are  not  the  originals,  but  ancient  copies.  In  the 
Vatican  is  a  replica  of  one  of  the  daughters,  the  work  of  which  is  finer  than 
that  of  the  statues  in  Florence.  A  beautiful  figure  of  one  of  the  daughters, 
recently  discovered  in  Rome,  does  not  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  composition. 


SCULPTURE 


267 


A  bronze  statue  found  some  years  ago  in  the  sea  near  the  island 
of  Cythera  (Fig.  197)  exhibits  the  art  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles 
in  a  different  way,  with  more  reminiscence  of  the  Ar-  TWO  bronze 
give  school,  at  least  in  the  physical  proportions.  The  statues 
work  may  be  a  copy  of  Roman  date,  but  the  original  must  be- 
long to  a  time  not  much 
after  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century,  before  the 
influence  of  Lysippus  was 
established.  Another  fine 
bronze  statue,  discovered 
in  the  Austrian  excavations 
at  Ephesus,  may  be  an  an- 
cient copy  or  an  original 
work.  The  surface  of  this, 
as  of  the  statue  from  near 
Cythera,  was  much  cor- 
roded, —  indeed,  both  stat- 
ues had  to  be  put  together 
from  many  pieces,  —  so 
that  many  details  of  exe- 
cution are  lost.  The  sub- 
ject, an  athlete  scraping 
himself,  the  attitude,  and 
the  heavy  proportions,  re- 
call the  Argive  school  of 
Polyclitus,  and  it  is  not  an 
improbable  suggestion  that 
this  statue  (or  its  original) 
is  the  work  of  Daedalus, 
son  and  pupil  of  Patrocles, 
who  was  a  pupil  of  Poly- 
clitus. In  that  case,  the 
date  of  the  work  is  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century  (Fig.  198). 

The  Hermes  is  an  original  work  of  Praxiteles,  and  the  fragments 


FlG.  197.  —  Bronze  statue  from  Anticythora. 
(Photograph.) 


268 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


from  Tegea  are  by  Scopas.  No  certainly  original  work  by  Lysip- 
pus  exists,  and  if  his  works  were  all  of  bronze,  as  nearly  all  of 
them  certainly  were,  the  existing  marble  copies  are  very  imperfect 

reproductions.  Pliny  says  : 1 
"  His  chief  contributions  to 
the  art  of  sculpture  are  said  to 
consist  in  his  vivid  rendering 
of  the  hair,  in  making  the 

heads  smaller  than 
Lysippus       , 

the    older    artists 

had  done,  and  the  bodies 
slimmer  and  with  less  flesh, 
thus  increasing  the  apparent 
height  of  his  figures.  There 
is  no  word  in  Latin  for  the 
canon  of  symmetry  (ffv/j-nerpia) 
which  he  was  so  careful  to 
preserve,  bringing  innovations 
which  had  never  been  thought 
of  before  into  the  square  canon 
of  the  older  artists,  and  he 
often  said  that  the  difference 
between  himself  and  them  was 
that  they  represented  men  as 
they  were,  and  he  as  they 
seemed  to  be.  His  chief  char- 
acteristic is  extreme  delicacy 
of  execution,  even  in  the  small- 
est details." 

Pliny  also  mentions  a  statue 
of   a    man    scraping    himself 

by  Lysippus,  which  was  very  popular  in  Rome,  and  a 
marble  statue,  discovered  in  1849  and  now  in  the  Vatican,  has  long 
been  regarded  as  a  copy  of  the  lost  bronze  (Fig.  199).     In  this 
1  XXXIV,  65,  translated  by  K.  Jex-Blake. 


FlG.  198.  —  Bronze  statue  from  Ephesus. 
(Catalogue  of  exhibition  in  Vienna,) 


SCULPTURE 


269 


statue,  which  is  of  exceptionally  fine  Roman  execution,  we  see  the 
hair  admirably  and  freely  rendered,  the  head  small  and  set  on  a 
long  and  slender  neck,  the  body  and  legs  slim  and  with  little  flesh, 
and  the  whole  admirably  and  naturally  poised.  All  the  peculiarities 
mentioned  by  Pliny  are  present.1 
It  is  true  that  these  qualities  are 
present  also  to  some  degree  in 
the  works  of  Praxiteles  and  of 
nearly  all  good  later  sculptors, 
but  Lysippus,  being  a  bronze- 
worker,  might  naturally  be  com- 
pared especially  with  Polyclitus. 
In  the  French  excavations  at 
Delphi  seven  marble  statues  were 
found,  which  were  set  up,  about 
335  B.C.,  by  a  certain  Daochus 
from  Pharsalus.  They  repre- 
sented the  dedicator  and  distin- 
guished members  of  his  family, 
among  them  Agias,  who  had  been 
the  first  Thessalian  to  win  the 
Victory  in  the  Pancratium  at 
Olympia,  more  than  one  hun- 
dred years  earlier.  An  inscrip- 
tion copied  by  Stackelberg  at 
Pharsalus  in  181 1  shows  that  a  se- 
ries of  statues  similar  to  those  at 
Delphi,  but  of  bronze,  was  set  up 
at  that  place,  and  that  the  statue 
of  Agias  was  by  Lysippus.  The  presumption  is  that  the  statues 
at  Delphi  are  copies  of  those  at  Pharsalus,  and  that  in  the  statue 
of  Agias  we  have  a  contemporary  copy  of  a  work  of  Lysippus/ 

1  The  right  hand,  which  holds  a  die,  is  restored. 

2  In  A.J.  A.,  XI,  1907,  pp.  396  ff.,  W.  W.  Hyde  argues  that  the  Agias 
is  an  original  work  by  Lysippus. 


FIG.  199.  —  Apoxyomenus  ;  Vatican. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  281.) 


270 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


The  Agias  (Fig.  200)  exhibits  the  qualities  mentioned  by  Pliny, 
but  is  not  so  far  removed  as  is  the  Apoxyomenus  from  the  tradi- 
tions of  Polyclitus.  The  hair  is  less  natural  and  the  separate 
locks  less  divided ;  the  eyes  resemble  more  the  eyes  of  the  heads 
from  Tegea ;  the  pose  is  more  like  that  of  the  Polyclitan  figures. 

In  execution  the  Agias  is  inferior  to 
the  Apoxyomenus,  so  that  a  com- 
parison of  the  minor  details  would 
be  of  little  value.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that  in  Roman  times 
connoisseurs  had  antiquarian  tastes 
and  wished  copies  of  earlier  works 
to  be  as  accurate  as  possible,  whereas 
in  the  fourth  century  even  a  copyist 
was  likely  to  retain  some  individual- 
ity. The  Agias  may  therefore  not 
be  a  perfectly  accurate  copy  of  the 
bronze  by  Lysippus.  But  when  all 
allowances  are  made,  the  differences 
between  the  two  statues  is  very 
great,  and  is  hardly  to  be  explained 
by  the  assumption  that  the  Agias 
was  an  early  work  of  Lysippus,  for 
when  the  statues  were  set  up  at 
Delphi,  Lysippus  was  no  longer 
young.  The  Agias  shows  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  school  of  Polyclitus 
modified  by  the  study  of  Attic  sculp- 
ture, and  especially  of  the  works  of 
Scopas.  The  Apoxyomenus  shows 


FlG.  200.  —  Statue  of  Agias. 
(Fouilles  de  Delfhes,  PI. 
LXIII.) 


the  same  or  similar  qualities  much  further  developed.  In  the 
Agias  are  found  the  qualities  ascribed  by  Pliny  to  Lysippus,  de- 
veloped about  as  far  as  one  would  expect  to  find  them  in  the  work 
of  an  artist  —  even  of  an  original  genius  —  of  the  time  of  Lysip- 
pus ;  in  the  Apoxyomenus  the  development  has  gone  further.  It 


SCULPTURE 


271 


may  be,  then,  that  the  Apoxyomenus  should  be  ascribed  rather  to 
a  successor  of  Lysippus  than  to  the  master  himself.  The  question 
is  still  open. 

Lysippus  is  said  to  have  produced  fifteen  hundred  works, 
an  astounding  number,  only  thirty-five  of  which  are  specifically 
mentioned  by  ancient  writers.  Among  these  are  colossal  figures, 
statues  of  gods  and  heroes,  portraits  (especially  of  Alexander), 
animals,  chariots,  and  allegorical  figures.  The  most  celebrated 
of  these  last  was  the  figure  of  Kairos,  Opportunity,  represented 
as  a  youth  resting  the  toes  of  his  winged  feet  on  a  ball.  His  hair 
was  long  above  his  forehead  and  temples,  but  behind  he  was  bald, 
an  intimation  that  Opportunity  is  easy  to  catch  at  the  right  mo- 
ment, but  not  when  it  is  past.  This  bold  personification  shows 
great  originality,  but  less  sense  of  artistic  propriety. 

Among  the  other  statues  by  Lysippus,  those  of  Heracles  were 
especially  famous.  A  copy,  or  adaptation,  by  an  artist  named 
Glycon,  of  one  of  these  is  the 
Farnese  Heracles,  in  the  museum 
at  Naples.  The  original  was  cer- 
tainly famous,  as  several  replicas 
exist.  In  the  Naples  copy,  the 
qualities  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
Heracles  of  Lysippus  are  obviously 
exaggerated.  A  better  idea  of  the 
head  is  obtained  from  a  bust  in 
the  British  Museum. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  which 
of  the  many  existing  portraits  of 
Alexander  are  derived  from  origi- 
nals by  Lysippus,  but  perhaps  the 
so-called  Azara  herm,  in  the 
Louvre,  has  the  best  claim  (Fig. 
201).  The  execution  is  not  remarkable,  and  the  preservation  is 
not  perfect,  but  the  great  conqueror  is  here  represented  without 
the  heroic  or  divine  attributes  or  the  theatrical  expression  with 


FIG.  201.  —  The  Azara  herm.  (Arndt- 
Bruckmann,  Griechische  and  R5- 
mische  Portr&ts,  PI.  181.) 


272 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


which  other,  and  later,  artists  endowed  him.     The  portrait  is,  for 
its  time,  realistic,  and  in  so  far  is  characteristic  of  Lysippus. 

In  fact,  realism, 
combined  with  most 
careful  execution, 
seems  to  have  been 
peculiarly  character- 
istic of  this  great 
artist.  When  these 
qualities  are  found 
combined  with  those 
specified  by  Pliny  it 
is  safe  to  assume  at 
least  the  indirect  in- 
fluence of  Lysippus. 
To  identify  copies  of 
his  own  works  is  less 
easy,  though  several 
have  been  identified 
by  various  scholars.1 
With  Lysippus  the 
tendency  to  realism, 
exaggeration,  and  the- 
atrical posing  which 
mark  the  Hellenistic 
period  may  be  said  to 


FIG.  202.  —  Monument  of  Dexileos.     (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  438.) 


1  An  interesting  hypothesis  has  recently  been  advanced  by  A.  Mahler 
{Comptes  rent/us  de  P  Acad.  des  Inscr.  et  Belles- Lettres,  1905,  pp.  623-628;  cf. 
Rev.  Arch.,  II,  1903,  pp.  33  ff.;  Reinach,  Recueil  de  tetes  antiques,  p.  146)  to 
the  effect  that  the  "  Venus  de'  Medici "  and  its  replicas  are  copies  of  an 
Aphrodite  by  Lysippus.  The  evidence  is  derived  from  a  statue,  signed  with 
the  name  of  Lysippus,  which  was  found  and  destroyed  at  Siena.  The  com- 
parative realism  of  the  famous  Venus,  the  fact  that  the  original  appears  to  have 
been  of  bronze,  and  the  difference  between  the  eyes  and  mouth  here  and  in 
the  Aphrodite  of  Cnidus,  certainly  indicate  that  some  strong  influence  other 
than  that  of  Praxiteles  must  be  assumed. 


SCULPTURE 


273 


Tombstones 


begin,  but  as  yet  there  is  only  the  tendency  to  these  faults,  not 
the  faults  themselves.  In  the  works  of  Lysippus  we  find  rather 
individuality  and  freedom  of  posture  and  expression,  no  longer 
hampered  by  imperfect  execution  or  traditional  limitations. 

The  Attic  gravestones  form  a  peculiarly  interesting  series  of 
reliefs  illustrating  the  development  of  sculpture  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  earlier  among  them,  such  as  the  monu- 
ment of  Dexileos  (Fig.  202),  who  was  killed  in  the 
Corinthian  War  in  394  B.C.,  still  exhibit  some  of  the  qualities  of 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  while  the  later  reliefs  show  the  in- 
fluence of  Praxiteles  and  even  of  Lysippus  (Fig.  203).  The  sub- 
ject of  these  re- 
liefs is  generally 
a  scene  of  family 
life,  a  seated  wom- 
an before  whom 
stands  a  maid  with 
a  toilet  box,  or,  as 
in  figure  203,  a 
father  gazing  sadly 
at  a  youth  (in 
this  case  accom- 
panied by  his 
slave  and  dog),  or 
two  persons  clasp- 
ing each  other  by 
the  hand.  These 
scenes  all  symbol- 
ize, rather  than  ex- 
press, the  grief  of 
the  survivors,  by 
recalling  the  beloved  presence  of  the  dead.  In  execution  they 
vary  from  great  refinement  almost  to  clumsiness,  but  even  the. 
most  carelessly  executed  among  them  are  beautiful  in  their  re- 
strained sentiment. 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  l8 


FlG.  203.  —  Attic  gravestone.     (Photograph.) 


274 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


Four  sarcophagi,  found  with  others  of  a  different  character  in 
a  tomb  at  Sidon,  may  best  be  mentioned  here.  The  earliest  of 
Sarcophagi  these,  called  the  tomb  of  the  satrap,  is  adorned  with 
from  Sidon  reliefs  resembling  those  on  Lycian  tombs  of  the  sixth 
century,  but  more  developed,  and  may  be  dated  about  450  B.C. 
The  next  in  order  is  called,  from  the  shape  of  the  lid  with  its 
ogival  vault,  the  Lycian  sarcophagus.  It  has  in  its  gables  two 
sphinxes  and  two  griffins,  below  on  the  ends  two  pairs  of  Cen- 


FlG.  204.  —  Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourners.     (T.  Reinach  and  Hamdy  Bey,  Une 
Necropole  royale  a  Sidon,  PI.  IX.) 

taurs,  on  the  sides  Amazons  in  four-horse  chariots  hunting  a  lion, 
and  horsemen  hunting  a  boar.  These  admirable  reliefs,  spirited 
in  design  and  execution,  are  apparently  the  work  of  an  Attic 
sculptor,  not  far  from  375  B.C.  The  third  sarcophagus  has  the 
form  of  a  small  Ionic  temple,  between  the  columns  of  which  are 
draped  female  figures  in  pensive  attitudes,  from  which  the  name 
"Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourners  "  is  derived  (Fig.  204).  Above,  on 
the  edge  of  the  roof,  is  a  broad  frieze,  decorated  with  a  relief  that 
represents  a  funeral  procession.  In  the  gables  are  seated  figures 


SCULPTURE  275 

in  attitudes  of  sorrow.  About  the  base,  below  the  columns,  are 
hunting  scenes  in  low  relief.  The  female  figures  between  the 
columns  are  especially  charming  in  their  varied  similarity.  They 
recall  at  once  some  of  the  women  on  Attic  gravestones  and  the  Muses 
on  the  Praxitelean  reliefs  from  Mantinea,  as  well  as  the  statues 
of  Muses  to  which  these  are  related.  The  sarcophagus  is  an 
exquisite  Attic  work  of  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. 
Even  more  important  than  the  Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourners  is 
the  "  Alexander  Sarcophagus,"  so  called  because  the  principal 
figure  of  one  of  its  reliefs  has  the  well-known  features  of  Alex- 


FlG.  205.  —  Alexander  sarcophagus.     (T.  Reinach  and  Hamdy  Bey,  Une 
Necropole  royale  d  Sidon,  PL  XXVII.) 

ander  the  Great.  This  sarcophagus  is  especially  important,  be- 
cause its  coloring  is  more  completely  preserved  than  that  of  any 
other  ancient  work  of  sculpture.  Light  blue  and  red,  yellow,  and 
brown  predominate,  though  other  colors  are  also  employed.  The 
mouldings  of  this  sarcophagus  are  exceedingly  rich.  The  top,  in 
the  form  of  a  tiled  roof,  is  adorned  with  antefixes  and  gargoyles, 
while  couchant  lions  guard  its  corners.  In  the  gables,  as  well  as 
on  one  end  and  one  side  below,  are  scenes  of  battle,  on  the  re- 
maining end  a  panther  hunt,  and  on  the  remaining  side  a  lion 
hunt.  The  presence  of  Alexander  in  the  combat  on  the  long  side 
(Fig.  205,  the  person  at  the  extreme  left)  shows  that  these  are  all 
historical  scenes,  though  they  have  not  been  identified  with  com- 


276 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


plete  certainty.  The  faces  of  the  chief  persons  are  evidently  por- 
traits, and  many  details,  especially  of  Persian  costume,  are  given 
with  realistic  accuracy.  These  are  not  merely  typical  combats, 

but  battles  that  actually  took 
place;  and  yet,  with  all  the 
lively  and  crowded  action,  there 
is  no  attempt  to  represent  the 
actual  details  as  they  happened. 
The  main  elements  of  the  re- 
ality are  reproduced  in  typical 
form,  with  even  occasional  rem- 
iniscences of  the  friezes  of 
Phigaleia  and  of  the  Mauso- 
leum. This  sarcophagus,  one 
of  the  best  preserved  and  most 
beautiful  monuments  of  Greek 
art,  still  breathes  the  spirit  of 
Attic  idealism,  and  yet  it  shows 
the  beginnings  of  other  things 
and  belongs  already  to  the 
time  when  Greek  art  found  its 
chief  mission  in  the  glorifica- 
tion, not  of  Hellenic  gods  or 
Hellenic  athletes,  but  of  the 
rulers  of  Asia,  Egypt,  and  Italy. 

HELLENISTIC  SCULPTURE 


FlG.  206.  —  Themis  from  Rhamnus. 
(Photograph.) 


With  the  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander and  the  foundation  of 
great  semi-Hellenic  kingdoms 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt,  the  centres  of  Greek  art  are  removed 
from  Greece  to  Alexandria,  Pergamon,  Ephesus,  Tralles,  and 
Rhodes.  The  new  art  adopts  new  methods,  abandons  the  self- 
restraint,  O-W^/DOO-WT/,  of  earlier  times,  appeals  more  directly  to  love 


SCULPTURE 


277 


of  splendor,  to  the  emotions,  and  to  personal  vanity.  At  the  same 
time,  however,  the  practice  of  sculpture  survived  in  its  Survival  of 
former  homes  and  retained  many  of  the  qualities  of  earlier  style 
earlier  work.  So  Chaerestratus,  the  artist  of  the  dignified  and 
impressive  statue  of  Themis  from  the  temple  at  Rhamnus  (Fig. 
206),  was  evidently  inspired  by  the 
traditions  and  ideals  of  the  fourth 
century  ;  and  the  less  excellent  seated 
Dionysus,  which  was  dedicated  by 
Thrasycles,  the  son  of  Thrasyllus,  in 
271—270  B.C.,  exhibits  similar  quali- 
ties, and  has  the  advantage  of  being 
accurately  dated.  In  280-279  B-c- 
a  decree  was  passed  in  accordance 
with  which  a  bronze  statue  of  De- 
mosthenes, by  Polyeuctus,  was 
erected  at  Athens.  This  is  without 
doubt  the  original  of  the  famous 
statue  of  Demosthenes  in  the  Vati- 
can (Fig.  207),  and  of  its  replica  at 
Sevenoaks,  an  admirable  work  and 
accurately  dated,  of  strictly  Attic 
style. 

Another  work  of  the  same  period 
is  the  beautiful  Victory  from  Samo- 
Vietory  of  thrace,  now  in  the  Louvre 
Samothrace  (Fig.  208).  This  was 
erected  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
after  his  victory  off  Cyprus  in  306 
B.C.,  but  before  the  issue  (between 
294  and  288  B.C.)  of  the  coins  on  which  the  statue  is  represented. 
Few  works  of  ancient  sculpture  meet  with  more  general  or  more 
enthusiastic  admiration  than  this.  The  magnificent  figure  stands 
on  the  fore  part  of  a  ship,  symbolizing  the  naval  victory,  her 
mighty  wings  half  spread,  and  her  garment  blown  about  by  the 


FlG.  207. —  Demosthenes  ;  Vaticaa 
(Photograph.) 


278 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


wind.  Originally  one  hand  held  a  straight  trumpet  to  her  lips 
and  the  other  held  a  slender  cross,  which  represented  the  stylis 
at  the  stern  of  a  ship,  and  served  as  a  trophy.  Here  is  nothing 

that  might  not  belong 
to  the  fourth  century, 
except  that  the  spirit 
of  Praxiteles  is  more 
intimately  and  subtly 
blended  with  that  of 
Scopas  and  Lysippus 
than  might  have  been 
possible  in  the  life- 
time of  those  masters. 
There  is  vigorous  ac- 
tion, but  no  exaggera- 
tion, realism  in  details, 
but  idealism  in  con- 
ception. The  execu- 
tion, as  is  usual  in 
such  large  works,  varies 
somewhat,  but  in  the 
parts  which  were  in- 
tended to  be  most 
exposed  to  view  is  ex- 
cellent and  even  deli- 
cate. Comparison  with 
the  Victory  of  Paeonius 
(p.  2  2  7)  shows  how  great 
was  the  progress  made 
in  the  treatment  of 
drapery,  which  is  here 
not  a  mere  accessory, 
nor  even,  as  in  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  a  part  of  the 
figure  which  it  discloses,  but  has  an  independent  value  and  texture 
of  its  own. 


FIG.  208.  —  Nike  from  Samothrace.     (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  85,  Ersatztafel.) 


SCULPTURE  279 

Symbolism  and  a  tendency  to  the  picturesque  are  two  striking 
qualities  of  Hellenistic    sculpture.     Both   are  present    to    some 
degree  in- this  figure,  which  stood  raised  aloft  on  its   symbolism 
ship's  prow,  gazing  down  a  valley  toward  the  sea  on  the  pictu- 
which  Demetrius  had  overcome  his  foes.     The  sugges-  res(lue 
tion  has  been  made  that  this  Victory  may  be  a  work  of  Eutychides, 
a  pupil  of  Lysippus,  whose  famous  personification  of  Antioch  (or 
rather  of  the  Fortune  of  Antioch)  is  known  through  a  small  copy 
in  the  Vatican.     Be  this  as  it  may,  at  any  rate  the  artist  of  the 
Victory  was  one  of  the  greatest  sculptors  of  his  age. 

Among  works  of  the  Hellenistic  period  which  show  the  survival 
of  earlier  traditions  are  several  which  have  been  assigned  by  some 
scholars  to  the  fourth  century.  Such  is  the  famous  Apollo  of 
the  Belvedere,  the  original  of  which  (for  the  statue  in  the  Vatican 
is  only  a  Roman  copy)  has  been  ascribed,  on  account  of  certain 
resemblances  to  the  Ganymedes  (p.  262),  to  Leochares.  But 
the  self  conscious,  almost  theatrical,  pose  of  the  Apollo  and  his 
exaggerated  coiffure  make  it  more  natural  to  attribute  the  work 
to  the  third  century,  and  the  same  date  should  then  be  assigned 
to  the  "Diana  of  Versailles,"  now  in  the  Louvre.  The  so-called 
Eubouleus,  a  marble  head  found  at  Eleusis,  which  has  been 
claimed  even  as  an  original  work  of  Praxiteles,  is  also  a  product 
of  Hellenistic  art.  Works  which  exhibit  qualities  similar  to  those 
of  the  fourth  century  were  produced  in  the  third  century,  as  was 
natural,  by  the  pupils  of  the  artists  of  the  century  before,  and  in 
the  second  century  and  thereafter  works  of  the  great  artists  of 
earlier  times  were  copied  and  imitated.  It  is  therefore  often 
well-nigh  impossible,  in  the  absence  of  external  indications,  to 
distinguish  between  works  of  Hellenistic  date  in  which  earlier 
traditions  are  perpetuated  and  adaptations  or  copies  of  lost 
works  of  earlier  times.  So  the  Niobe  group  (p.  266),  which 
has  been  considered  a  work  of  the  fourth  century,  is  more  prob- 
ably of  later  date,  for  it  was  apparently  arranged  in  a  garden 
or  some  similar  picturesque  setting,  since  it  can  hardly  have 
decorated  a  building,  and  its  composition  exhibits  picturesque 


280 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


qualities,  which  are  familiar  enough  in  Hellenistic  times,  but  not 

in  the  days  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles. 

A  work  which  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion  is  the  famous 

Aphrodite  from  Melos  (Fig.  209),  in  the  Louvre.     With  it  was 

Aphrodite    found  an  inscription  bearing  the  signature  of  Agesan- 

from  Melos  der  from  Antioch  on  the  Maeander,  a  city  which  was 

not  founded  until  281  B.C.  Unfortunately  the  inscription  is  lost 
and  its  connection  with  the  statue  can- 
not be  absolutely  proved.  The  head  is 
clearly  Praxitelean ;  the  statue  cannot, 
therefore,  be  earlier  than  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  drapery,  with  its  large,  heavy 
folds,  recalls  work  of  the  fifth  century. 
So  it  is  natural  to  assign  the  statue  to 
a  time  when  the  styles  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  might  readily  be  com- 
bined ;  that  is,  to  a  time  after  the  fourth 
century ;  but  whether  the  third  century, 
or  later,  can  hardly  be  determined  with- 
out definite  external  evidence.  The 
statue  is  not  carved  from  one  block,  but 
the  upper,  nude  parts  are  of  finer  mar- 
ble, and  more  finely  wrought,  than  the 
lower,  draped  portion.  A  left  hand 
holding  an  apple,  and  part  of  an  arm, 
were  found  with  the  statue,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  it,  though  they  do 
not  now  appear  to  be  of  such  good  work- 
manship as  the  rest.  This  general  type 
was  employed  in  representations  of  Vic- 
tory (e.g.  the  Victory  of  Brescia)  as  well 
as  of  Aphrodite,  either  alone  {e.g.  the 

Aphrodite  of  Capua)  or  in  a  group  with  Ares.     Since  parts  of 

the  left  side  of  the  statue  from  Melos  are  comparatively  unfinished, 

it  seems  that  something  must  have  stood  beside  the  figure,  but  the 


FIG.  209.  —  Aphrodite  from 
Melos.      (Photograph.) 


SCULPTURE  281 

direction  of  the  gaze  makes  it  improbable  that  Ares  was  grouped 
with  Aphrodite.  Perhaps  the  goddess  rested  her  left  elbow  on  a 
column  about  as  high  as  her  shoulder,  as  Furtwangler  believed,  or 
possibly  her  arm  rested  on  a  shield  or  mirror  supported  by  a 
cippus,  as  is  the  case  in  a  small  bronze  in  the  Louvre.  The  right 
hand  probably  held  the  drapery.  In  all  probability  the  type  was 
not  invented,  but  merely  adapted,  by  the  sculptor  of  this  statue, 
which  is,  both  by  reason  of  its  excellent  preservation  and  its  in- 
herent beauty,  one  of  the  most  widely  known  and  generally  ad- 
mired works  of  ancient  art. 

But  the  survival  of  earlier  traditions  is  by  no  means  the  most 
marked  quality  of  sculpture  in  the  Hellenistic  period.     On  the 

contrary   there   is  much   that   is   new.     Realism,  es- 

....  •        j       i  i         TM       i_  Realism 

pecially   in   portraits,  develops  greatly.      I  he  bronze 

head  of  a  boxer  from  Olympia  shows  in  all  their  details,  with  no 
attempt  to  represent  a  type,  and  certainly  with  no  purpose  of 
creating  a  work  of  beauty,  the  battered  features  of  a  professional 
pugilist,  an  Olympic  victor  of  the  period.  In  execution  this  head 
is  marvellous,  and  it  illustrates  well  the  ability  of  the  Hellenistic 
artist  to  represent  exactly  what  he  saw,  even  to  the  most  minute 
details.  The  same  qualities  are  present  in  the  bronze  statue  of  a 
boxer,  found  in  the  Tiber  and  now  in  the  Museo  delle  Terme,  in 
which  even  the  bruises  and  cracks  made  by  the  blows  received  in 
the  prize  ring  are  faithfully  reproduced  with  consummate  skill. 

An  interesting  feature  of  Hellenistic  art  is  the  development  of 
genre,  representations  of  persons  and  scenes  without  Genre,  the 
historical,  mythical,  symbolic,  or  religious  meaning,  picturesque 
merely  for  ornamental  purposes.  In  works  of  this  kind  figures  of 
children  are  especially  frequent.  In  fact,  the  round,  soft  forms 
of  infancy  were  very  popular  in  Hellenistic  and  Roman  times.  A 
group  of  a  little  boy  struggling  with  a  goose,  by  Boethus  of  Chal- 
cedon  (apparently  not  of  Carthage),  an  artist  of  the  third  century, 
was  especially  famous,  and  was  imitated  and  copied  with  many 
variations.  Other  genre  figures,  many  of  which,  especially  at  Alex- 
andria, partook  of  the  nature  of  caricature,  were  numerous,  such 


282 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


as  the  drunken  old  woman,  by  a  bronze  worker  named  Myron,  a 
fish  seller,  and  the  like.  Genre  reliefs  were  also  popular,  and  these 
have  landscape  backgrounds  (Fig.  210).  Apparently  such  reliefs 
originated  at  Alexandria,  but  they  were  popular  elsewhere,  espe- 
cially in  Asia  Minor.  The  landscape  backgrounds  were  also  em- 
ployed in  mythological  reliefs,  and  these  "  picturesque  reliefs," 


FIG.  210.  —  Picturesque  Relief.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  343  a.) 

whether  their  subjects  were  genre  or  mythological,  were  carved  on 
panels  and  used  like  pictures  for  the  decoration  of  walls. 

At  Pergamon,  Attalus  I  (241-197  B.C.)  strengthened  his  posi- 
tion and  established  a  powerful  kingdom  by  his  victories  over  the 

Galatians,  wandering  tribes  of  Gauls  who  had  settled 
Pergamon  .  .         . 

in  Asia.     In    commemoration  of  these  victories  he 

caused  many  works  of  art  to  be  created  by  several  sculptors,  the 


SCULPTURE  283 

chief  of  whom  was  Epigonus.  Parts  of  two  large  groups  of  figures 
are  preserved  in  marble  copies.  To  the  first  group  belong  the 
famous  "Dying  Gaul"  (formerly  called  the  Dying  Gladiator),  in 
the  Capitoline  Museum,  and  the  Gaul  killing  himself  after  having 
killed  his  wife,  in  the  Museo  delle  Terme,1  in  Rome.  These  fig- 
ures are  somewhat  above  life  size.  Of  the  other  group  at  least 
ten  figures  are  extant.2  The  entire  group,  in  the  original,  which 
was  of  bronze,  was  given  by  Attalus  to  Athens  and  set  up  on  the 
Acropolis.  It  represented  the  battles  of  the  Gods  and  Giants, 
Greeks  and  Amazons,  Greeks  and  Persians,  and  Pergamenes  and 
Galatians.  The  number  of  figures  must  have  been  large,  perhaps 
one  hundred  in  all.  Curiously  enough,  the  extant  figures  all  repre- 
sent defeated  combatants.  They  are  only  about  three  feet  high, 
and  this  agrees  with  the  recorded  size  (two  ells)  of  the  originals. 
These  small  figures  are  remarkably  similar  in  style  to  the  "  Dying 
Gaul"  and  the  group  in  the  Museo  delle  Terme.  In  all,  realism 
is  the  most  noticeable  feature.  The  Gauls  are  distinguished  by 
their  mustaches,  torques,  and  stiff,  coarse  hair,  the  giants  are 
wild  and  unkempt,  and  in  the  treatment  of  the  skin  these  two 
races  are  distinguished  from  the  more  delicate  Amazons  and 
Persians.  In  the  "  Dying  Gaul  "  (Fig.  211)  the  blood  streaming 
from  the  wound  in  the  right  side  is  an  especially  marked  bit  of 
realism.  The  style  is  vigorous  and  the  execution  admirable,  but 
the  Hellenic  love  of  self-restraint  and  sense  of  artistic  fitness  is 
lacking.  Vigor,  accuracy,  and  emotion,  rather  than  beauty,  are 
the  chief  characteristics  of  these  works.  In  details  the  larger  are 
superior  to  the  smaller  figures,  and  their  mere  size  also  helps  to 
make  them  more  impressive.  Another  work  of  this  school  is  the 

1  This  was  formerly  in  the  Villa  Ludovisi,  and  was  at  one  time  called 
"Arria  and  Paetus." 

2  Four  in  Naples,  three  in  Venice,  and  one  each  at  Aix  in  Provence,  Paris, 
and  Rome.     They  are  of  a  coarse-grained  marble,  similar  to  that  used  in  the 
great  altar  at  Pergamon.     Probably  they  were  made  at  Pergamon  before  the 
bronzes  were  sent   to  Athens,  or  possibly  a  second  set  of  bronzes  was  made 
for  Pergamon,  from  which  the  marble  figures  were  copied. 


284 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Fl(5.  211.  —  Dying  Galatian.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  421.) 

"  Arrotino,"  or  Scythian  sharpening  his  knife,  in  the  Uffizi  gallery, 
at  Florence.  This  figure  was  undoubtedly  part  of  a  group  repre- 
senting the  punishment  of  Marsyas. 

The  sculpture  of  the  Pergamene  school  of  the  time  of  Attalus  I 
is  known  by  excellent  copies,  that  of  the  time  of  Eumenes  II 
(197-159  B.C.)  by  undoubted  originals,  found  at  Pergamon  by 
the  German  excavators  and  now  in  the  Pergamon  Museum  at 
Berlin.  These  are  the  friezes  of  the  great  altar  of  Zeus  and 
Athena  (see  p.  182),  erected  by  Eumenes  II.  About  the  base 
of  the  altar  ran  a  continuous  frieze  over  seven  feet  (2.30  m.)  high, 
and  a  much  smaller  frieze  decorated  the  inner  side  of  the  wall 
of  the  portico.  The  great  stairway  cut  into  the  side  of  the 
base,  and  here  the  frieze  turned  and  decorated  the  sides  of  the 
stairway,  decreasing  in  height  step  by  step.  Only  fragments,  but 
many  large  fragments,  of  the  great  frieze  are  preserved.  The 
subject  is  the  battle  of  the  Gods  and  the  Giants  (Fig.  212),  which 
no  doubt  symbolized  the  conflict  of  the  Pergamenes  and  the  wild 
Galatians.  The  subject  is  an  old  one  in  Greek  art,  but  is  here 


SCULPTURE 


285 


treated  with  astounding  variety  and  fertility  of  invention.  The 
relief  is  very  high,  parts  of  the  figures  being  carved  entirely  in  the 
round.  The  forms  of  human  beings  and  of  beasts  are  mingled 
in  the  confusion  of  combat,  for  some  of  the  giants  have  in  place 
of  legs  great  serpents  with  terrible  heads  and  open  jaws,  some  are 
winged,  and  some  are  hybrid  forms  of  men  and  beasts,  while  the 
eagle  of  Zeus,  the  serpent  of  Athena,  the  panther  of  Dionysus, 
and  the  dogs  of  Hecate  and  of  other  deities  take  part  in  the  fray, 


FIG.  212.  —Athena  in  combat  with  giants.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  484.) 

marine  animals  accompany  the  deities  of  the  sea,  and  Cybele  is 
seated  on  her  lion.  The  gods  are  so  arranged  that  related 
deities  are  brought  near  each  other,  and  the  groups  of  combatants 
are  so  connected  that  the  whole  action  appears  to  be  continuous. 
The  types  of  the  gods  are  those  established  in  earlier  times, 
but  here  their  salient  points  are  emphasized  and  heightened  by 
action.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  figure  of  Apollo  has,  in  pose  at 
least,  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Apollo  of  the  Belvedere.  The 
faces  of  the  gods  have  no  Olympic  calm,  but  are  full  of  animation, 
while  those  of  the  giants  express  hatred,  fear,  and  pain  with  the 


286 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


utter  absence  of  restraint  that  befits  their  wild  nature.  One 
almost  feels  the  tension  of  the  powerful  muscles  as  the  gods  and 
giants  struggle  for  the  mastery.  Here,  in  this  symbolic  combat, 
realism  is,  if  possible,  even  more  pronounced  than  in  the  figure 
of  the  "Dying  Gaul";  for  in  these  superhuman  figures  the  real- 
istic details  may  be  exaggerated,  so  the  sculptors  seem  to  have 
thought,  without  ceasing  to  be  lifelike.  This  frieze  is  wonderful 
and  brilliant,  full  of  life  and  vigor,  a  great  monument  of  inventive 
ability  and  technical  skill,  yet  it  is  grandiose  rather  than  grand, 
startling  rather  than  impressive,  gorgeous  rather  than  beautiful. 

Of  the  smaller  frieze  (Fig.  213) 
much  less  remains.  The  subject 
is  the  myth  of  Telephus  and  the 
foundation  of  Pergamon.  The 
relief  is  by  no  means  so  high  as 
that  of  the  great  frieze,  but  much 
higher  than  that  of  the  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon,  with  which  it  may 
be  compared  in  size  as  well  as  in 
respect  of  the  position  for  which 
it  was  intended.  The  most  strik- 
ing thing  about  it  is  perhaps  its 
picturesque  background,  which 
shows  how  completely  taste  had  changed  since  the  days  of  Pericles. 
An  artist  of  striking  originality,  who  seems  to  belong  to  the 
second  century  B.C.,  but  whose  work  stands  in  no  apparent  relation 
to  the  sculptors  of  Pergamon,  and  is  not  a  direct 
development  from  the. styles  of  the  fourth  century,  is 
Damophon.  Pausanias  mentions  several  colossal  statues  by  him 
at  Lycosura,  in  Arcadia,  and  there,  among  the  ruins  of  the  temple 
of  Despoina,  parts  of  them  were  found  (Fig.  214).  Damophon  was 
formerly  regarded  as  a  contemporary  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles, 
and  a  mere  glance  at  his  works  shows  that  his  date  cannot  be 
earlier  than  theirs.  But  his  methods  are  different.  He  exhibits 
a  feeling  for  texture  in  drapery  and  hair  that  seems  to  presuppose 


FIG.  213.  — Fi 

frieze   from    Pergamon. 
Bruckmann,  PL  485.) 


Damophon 


smaller 
(Brunn- 


SCULPTURE 


287 


Praxiteles,  and  there  is  a  unique 
largeness  and  boldness  in  his 
heads,  something  that  reminds 
one  of  the  impressionists  of 
modern  times,  which  would 
have  been  impossible  before 
Scopas,  or  even  before  Lysip- 
pus. 

Damophon  was  an  unique 
personality,  who  seems  to  have 
founded  no  school  and  had  no 
successors ;  but  the  influence 
of  the  Pergamene  artists  was 
widespread  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
seems  to  have  been  especially 
strong  in  Rhodes  even  later 
than  the  middle  of  the  first 
century  B.C.  Thus  inscriptions 
fix  the  date  of  the  three  Rhodians,  Agesander,  Polydorus,  and 
Athenadorus,  the  artists  of  the  Laocoon  group,  about  The  Laocoon 
40  B.C.  It  is  therefore  not  impossible  that  this  work  group 
(Fig.  215)  inspired  Virgil  to  write  his  description  (Aeneid,  II,  212- 
224)  of  the  death  of  Laocoon.  The  great  fame  of  the  group  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  following  facts :  It  was  discovered  at  a  time 
(1506)  when  there  was  the  greatest  interest  in  ancient  art,  it  was 
the  only  well  preserved  example  of  realistic  ancient  sculpture  then 
known,  it  was  easily  identified  as  a  work  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and 
its  subject  is  identical  with  that  of  Virgil's  famous  lines ;  moreover, 
it  was  exposed  in  a  prominent  place,  and  at  a  later  time  it  was 
chosen  by  Lessing  to  typify  plastic  art  as  opposed  to  poetry  in  his 
essay  entitled  Laocoon,  and  last,  but  not  least,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand. As  a  work  of  art  it  does  not  merit  its  fame.  The  sons  are 
too  small  for  their  apparent  ages,  the  serpents  are  inert  and  life- 
less, the  attitude  of  Laocoon  is  unnatural,  and  the  agonized  ex- 
pression of  his  face  is  rather  that  of  bodily  pain  than  of  the 


FIG.  214.  —  Head  of  Anytus  by  Damo- 
phon.    (Photogniph.) 


288 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


FlG.  215.  —  Laocoon  group.     (Photograph.) 

mingled  horror  and  physical  exertion  demanded  by  the  struggle 
in  which  all  his  muscles  are  engaged.  In  spite  of  all  these 
faults  the  group  shows  skill  in  composition  and  execution. 
The  right  arm  of  Laocoon  is  wrongly  restored,  and  should 


SCULPTURE  289 

be  bent  so  that  the  hand  touches  the  back  of  the  head;  a 
similar  change  should  be  made  in  the  right  arm  of  the  younger 
son.  The  group  was  therefore  originally  more  harmonious  than 
it  is  with  its  present  alterations.  In  date  this  work  belongs  to  the 
Graeco-Roman  period,  but  its  evident  relation  to  the  reliefs  of  the 
great  altar  at  Pergamon  makes  it  natural  to  regard  it  as  Hellenistic. 

Another  work  which  may  be  regarded  either  as  Hellenistic  or 
Graeco-Roman  is  the  so-called  Farnese  Bull,  by  the  brothers  Apol- 
lonius  and  Tauriscus,  of  Tralles,  who  lived  probably  The  Parnese 
in  the  early  part  of  the  first  century  B.C.  This  was  Bul1 
brought  from  Rhodes  to  Rome,  and  is,  like  the  Laocoon,  a  prod- 
uct of  the  Asian  school  which  had  its  latest  important  centre  at 
Rhodes. 

The  sculpture  of  the  Graeco-Roman  period,  when  Rome  had 
become  the  capital  of  the  world  and  Romans  were  the  chief  pa- 
trons of  art,  is  confined  chiefly  to  copies  and  adapta-      Graeco- 
tions  of  earlier  works.     Roman  praetors  and  procon-      Roman 
suls  brought  to  Italy  many  Greek  statues  plundered      sculpture 
from  the  provinces,  and  some  pretence,  at  least,  of  appreciation 
for  art  was  expected  of  the  Roman  gentleman.     Greek  sculptors, 
chiefly  Athenians,  were  numerous  at  Rome,  and  the  museums  of 
Europe  are  full  of  their  works.     Sometimes  these  can  be  identified 
as  more  or  less  exact  copies  of  earlier  originals,  and  it  is  chiefly 
through  them  that  details  of  the  lost  originals  are  known  to  us. 
More  frequently  they  are  repetitions  of  earlier  types,  without  the 
merit  or  interest  of  exact  copies,  even  when  they  are  of  careful 
workmanship. 

Among  these  adaptations  are  the  famous  Capitoline  Venus  and 
the  still  more  famous  Venus  de'  Medici,1  both  of  which  are  de- 
velopments from  the  type  of  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite  of  Adaptation 
Praxiteles.     But  in  both  of  these  the  vague  conscious-   of  earlier 
ness  of  nudity    has  become   an    almost    coquettish  ^P68 
consciousness  of  the  spectator,  such  as  would  appeal  to  the  Roman 

1  Even  if  the  Venus  de'  Medici  is  derived  from  an  original  by  Lysippus 
(see  p.  272  note)  it  can  hardly  be  an  exact  copy. 
GREEK  ARCH.  —  19 


290 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


of  imperial  times.  The  goddess  has  become  a  mere  mortal.  The 
Farnese  Heracles  (p.  271),  signed  by  the  Athenian  Glycon,  re- 
produces a  Lysippian  type,  but  exaggerates,  and  thereby  debases, 
the  qualities  of  the  original.  The  "  Belvedere  Torso,"  which  was 
greatly  admired  by  Michael  Angelo,  is  also  apparently  a  Roman 
adaptation  of  an  earlier  type.  Copies  of  the  statue  of  Venus 

Genetrix,  made  by  Arcesi- 
laus  for  the  forum  of  Julius 
Caesar,  not  far  from  the 
middle  of  the  first  century 
B.C.,  have  been  recognized 
in  several  statues,  and  the 
type  is  seen  on  some  Ro- 
man coins.  The  head,  the 
folds  of  the  drapery,  and 
the  general  pose  recall  the 
style  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  but  the  position  of  the 
right  hand  and  arm,  holding 
up  a  corner  of  the  garment 
to  uncover  the  shoulder, 
and  various  details,  indi- 
cate that  this  is  not  a  copy, 
but  an  adaptation  of  an 
earlier  type,  which  may  be 
that  of  the  "Aphrodite  of 
the  Gardens "  by  Alca- 
menes. 

Another  sculptor  of  the  first  century  B.C.  was  Pasiteles,  an 
Italian  Greek,  who  received  the  Roman  citizenship  in  87  B.C.  in 
common  with  his  compatriots.  His  works  in  marble 
and  other  materials,  including  gold,  silver,  and  ivory, 
were  numerous,  and  he  also  wrote  a  book  on  the  history  of  art. 
His  own  works  are  lost,  but  he  evidently  founded  a  school,  for 
works  are  extant  by  Stephanus,  who  calls  himself  a  pupil  of  Pasi- 


FIG.  216.  —  Electra  and  Orestes.     (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  PI.  306.) 


Pasiteles 


SCULFJTURE  291 

teles,  and  by  Menelaus,  a  pupil  of  Stephanus.  These  are  clearly 
imitations  of  statues  of  the  Argive  school  of  the  fifth  century,  with 
archaic  traits  that  indicate  the  time  of  Hagelaidas  and  his  contem- 
poraries, just  before  Polyclitus.  The  group  in  Naples,  probably 
correctly  called  Electra  and  Orestes  (Fig.  216),  is  a  good  example 
of  these  works.  The  postures  are  simple,  the  treatment  of  hair 
and  the  general  arrangement  of  drapery  are  archaic,  but  the  pro- 
portions, in  spite  of  the  square  Argive  shoulders,  are  rather  those 
adopted  by  Lysippus,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  drapery  of  the 
female  figure  is  clearly  much  later  in  its  treatment  than  the  lower 
part.  This  is  evidently  not  a  real  copy  of  an  early  work,  but  a 
product  of  mannerism,  of  affectation  of  archaic  simplicity,  which  is 
not  without  a  certain  charm,  but  shows  no  real  originality.  That 
such  works  were  popular  is  proved  by  the  number  of  them  that 
still  exists.  Besides  the  works  of  the  eclectic  school  of  Pasiteles, 
there  are  many  examples  of  more  consistent  imitation  of  the 
archaic  style. 

Numerous  reliefs,  called  Neo-Attic  reliefs,  exhibit  qualities  simi- 
lar in  some  respects  to  those  of  the  works  of  Pasiteles  and  his 
school.  In  these  reliefs  figures  are  seen  which  repro-  Neo-Attic 
duce  more  or  less  exactly  works  of  earlier  times ;  but  school 
no  single  period  is  imitated  consistently.  On  a  marble  vase  in  the 
Louvre,  signed  by  Sosibius,  some  figures  have  the  stiif  drapery  of 
the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century,  with  its  straight  folds  ending  in 
zigzags,  while  others  have  the  flowing  drapery  of  the  time  of  Sco- 
pas  and  Praxiteles.  On  other  reliefs  Apollo  Citharoedus  and  his 
attendants  are  represented  in  flowing  robes,  which  are  archaic  only 
in  some  details,  while  in  the  background  are  buildings  which  have 
been  recognized  as  structures  of  the  imperial  period.  The  relief 
in  Munich1  representing  the  wedding  procession  of  Poseidon  and 
Amphitrite  is  an  example  of  freer  and  livelier  adaptation  of  earlier 
types.  This  work,  which  was  formerly  connected  with  Scopas, 
was  probably  made  to  decorate  the  altar  in  front  of  the  temple  of 
Neptune  erected  in  Rome  about  35-32  B.C.  by  Domitius  Aheno- 
1  One  slab  is  in  the  Louvre. 


292  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

barbus.  Although  the  execution  is  lifeless  and  almost  clumsy,  the 
design  is  full  of  variety,  and  the  whole  forms  a  most  effective  piece 
of  decorative  sculpture. 

Much  of  the  sculpture  produced  at  Rome  in  imperial  times  was 
strictly  Graeco-Roman ;  that  is,  Roman  in  date  and  workmanship 

(though  the  workmen  were,  chiefly  at  least,  Greeks), 
Graeco- 
Roman  and     but  reproducing  Greek  types.     So  the  reliefs  on  sar- 

Roman  cophagi  which  represent  Greek  myths  reproduce  types, 

some  of  which  can  be  traced  back  to  the  fifth  cen- 
tury ;  the  winged  Victories  on  the  column  of  Trajan  exhibit  the 
type  of  the  Aphrodite  of  Melos,  with  some  variations ;  the  Dea 
Roma  is  a  slightly  modified  Athena  ;  and  symbolic  figures,  wher- 
ever found,  are  imitations  of  Greek  models.  Even  in  portraiture 
Greek  types  are  often  adopted,  so  far  as  pose  and  disposition  of 
drapery  are  concerned.  The  history  of  Greek  sculpture  continues, 
therefore,  to  the  end  of  the  Roman  period ;  but,  as  Greek  sculp- 
ture, it  offers  little  that  is  of  interest  or  importance,  except  in  so 
far  as  it  has  preserved  earlier  types  that  would  otherwise  have 
disappeared.  Genuine  Roman  sculpture  —  chiefly  portraits  and 
historical  reliefs  —  although  its  technical  processes  were  learned 
from  the  Greeks,  and  the  workmen  were  actually  for  the  most  part 
of  Greek  blood,  has  a  history  'of  its  own.  Its  chief  feature  is 
its  preoccupation  with  historical  truth,  which  leads  to  intense 
realism  in  portraiture  and  to  the  attempt  to  make  historical  reliefs 
accurate  records  of  events.  The  study  of  its  development,  in- 
teresting as  it  is,  hardly  falls  within  the  province  of  Greek  archae- 
ology. 


CHAPTER  IV 

TERRACOTTAS 

CLAY  was  used  by  the  Greeks  for  various  purposes.  As  brick,  crude 
or  baked,  it  was  one  of  the  most  important  building  materials,  while 

its    use   for  purposes  of  architectural  adornment,  in 

Uses  of  clay 
the   manufacture  of  pottery,  and  in  the   production 

of  images,  —  generally  statuettes  of  small  size,1 — was  common 
in  all  parts  of  the  Greek  world.  The  use  of  brick  as  build- 
ing material  is  sufficiently  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Architecture, 
where  the  architectural  ornaments  of  clay  are  also  mentioned,  and 
a  separate  chapter  is  devoted  to  vases  or  pottery ;  the  reliefs  and 
the  images  remain  to  be  considered.  These  are  the  monuments 
generally  referred  to  as  terracottas,  and  among  these  the  statuettes 
or  figurines  are  the  most  interesting  and  in  many  respects  the 
most  important. 

In  the  earliest  times  the  art  of  the  potter  was  not  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  maker  of  clay  images ;  both  moulded  the  clay  with 
their  hands  and  fired  it  in  an  open  fire  or  an  oven.  So  Early  figure 
we  find  among  the  early  vases  of  Troy  and  other  places  vases 
some  that  might  almost  be  called  statuettes,  inasmuch  as  they  imi- 
tate the  forms  of  human  beings  or  animals.  But  with  the  inven- 
tion of  the  potter's  wheel  the  moulding  of  figures  and  the  making 
of  vases  became  two  distinct  processes,  for  the  vase  made  on  the 

1  Larger  images  —  real  statues  —  of  terracotta  were  not  uncommon  in  early 
times,  especially  in  Cyprus  and  southern  Italy ;  but  after  the  sixth  century 
they  were  unusual,  and  they  seem  never  to  have  been  common  in  Greece 
proper.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fourth,  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  B.C.,  terracotta  statues  formed  by  hand  were  made  in  southern  Italy. 
These  resemble  in  style  the  other  statues  of  this  period. 

293 


294  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

wheel  is  round  and  smooth — except  as  ornaments,  handles,  or 
other  things  may  be  added  to  it — and  cannot  therefore  represent 
human  or  animal  forms.  Not  that  the  combination  of  human  and 
other  forms  with  vases  is  entirely  given  up  after  the  introduction 
of  the  potter's  wheel,  but  henceforth  the  combination  takes,  as  a 
rule,  the  form  either  of  a  statuette,  which,  being  hollow,  is  used  as 
a  vase,  or  of  a  vase  to  which  human  or  animal  forms  are  added  for 
the  sake  of  ornament.  It  is  therefore  possible  to  discuss  the  terra- 
cotta figures  by  themselves,  with  only  occasional  references  to  vases. 

In  various  places  rude  and  primitive  terracotta  figures  have  been 

found,  formed  by  hand,  the  arms  and  legs  hardly  indicated,  the 

Primitive     eves  represented  by  round  holes  or  by  pellets  of  clay 

figures  stuck  on  the  surface  somewhere  near  the  right  place, 
the  nose  a  sort  of  beak  formed  by  pinching  the  soft  clay  between 
the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  maker.  Such  figures  can  be  dated 
only  by  the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  found.  In  some 
instances,  as  at  Hagia  Triada  (in  Crete)  and  at  the  Argive  Heraeum, 
they  may  belong  to  a  very  early  period,  before  the  development  of 
the  Mycenaean  civilization,  whereas  in  other  places,  as  in  Rhodes 
and  Cyprus,  they  appear  to  belong  to  the  time  after  the  Mycenaean 
civilization  passed  away  and  to  be  succeeded  by  the  archaic  figures 
of  the  sixth  century.  These  primitive,  hand-made  figures  are  solid, 
not  hollow,  and  are  therefore  always  small,  since  large  figures  of 
solid  clay  would  be  likely  to  crack  and  be  spoiled  in  firing.  They 
generally  represent  a  draped  female  figure,  sometimes,  as  at  the 
Argive  Heraeum,  adorned  with  various  clumsily  wrought  orna- 
ments. These  figures  have  as  yet  been  found  chiefly  at  sanctua- 
ries, not  in  tombs,  and  may  therefore  fairly  be  interpreted  as  idols 
intended  to  represent  a  nature-goddess.  Such  primitive  figures 
may,  and  doubtless  did,  continue  to  be  made  even  after  better 
processes  had  been  invented  and  better  work  could  be  done, 
because  in  objects  made  for  a  religious  purpose  traditional  forms 
and  processes  are  likely  to  survive  longer  than  when  beauty  or 
perfection  is  the  sole  aim  of  the  maker. 

An  interesting  series  of  votive  figurines  found  at  Petsofa,  near 


TERRACOTTAS 


295 


Palaikastro,  in  Crete,  some  striking  faience  figures  of  a  snake- 
goddess  and  her  votaries,  from  Cnossus  (p.  46),  and  less  remark- 
able remains  from  other  places,  show  that  even  before  the  Kamares 
ware  had  given  way  to  pottery  of  Mycenaean  style  Cretan  artisans 
had  attained  considerable  skill  in  the  modelling  of  clay,  though  their 
technical  processes  were  rude.  The  terracotta  figures  of  Myce- 
naean times  show  less  skill  in  modelling,  and  are  painted  like  the 
contemporary  vases.  For  the  most  part  they  represent  female 
figures,  though  animals  also  occur.  Such  figures  have  been  found 
at  Mycenae,  Nauplia,  Tiryns,  Athens, 
Eleusis,  and  other  places. 

Primitive  terracottas  from  Cyprus, 
representing  draped  female  figures,  are 
sometimes  flat,  like  bits  of  board,  and 
sometimes  almost  cylindrical.  Other 
primitive  Cypriote  figurines  represent 
animals,  and  still  others  a  nude  female 
figure,  perhaps  the  goddess  Astarte,  with 
her  hands  holding  her  breasts.  In  most 
of  these  primitive  Cypriote  figures  the 
modelling  is  so  rude  as  to  be  grotesque, 
though  some  of  them  show  more  skill. 
Necklaces  and  other  ornaments  are 
formed  by  pellets  of  clay  stuck  upon  the 
figure  in  the  proper  places,  and  color 
is  freely  used,  especially  on  the  dra- 
pery. 


FIG.  217.  —  Boeotian  Doll. 
Boston.  Height,  0.30  ra. 
(Photograph.) 


A  limited  number  of  curious  figures  from  Boeotia  (Fig.  217)  ap- 
parently represent  draped  females.     The  bodies  are  hollow  and 
decorated  in  geometrical  style.     The  other  parts  are  _, 
solid.     Another  class  of  primitive   figures   has   been  urines  from 
found  chiefly  at  Tanagra.     They  are  made  of  rather  TanaSra 
thin  flat  slabs  of  clay,  and  represent  for  the  most  part  standing 
and    seated  draped   females.     On  account  of  their  curious  high 
headdress,  which  resembles  that  of  the  modern  Greek  priests,  they 


296 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


have  been  called  papades  (ira?ras  is  the  modern  Greek  word  for 
priest).  They  are  freely  decorated  with  color,  in  a  style  like  that 
of  the  Boeotian  geometrical  vases.  Other  primitive  figures  from 
Tanagra  represent  draped  males,  still  others  horses  with  their  riders. 
The  earliest  figures  are  limited  in  the  number  of  types  represented 
and  are  very  rude  in  workmanship,  but  as  time  goes  on,  chariots, 
with  horses  and  drivers,  occur  occasionally,  and  scenes  from  daily 


FIG.  218.  —  Barber  from  Tanagra.    Boston. 
Height,  0.116  m.    (Photograph.) 


FlG.  219.  —  Slab-like  figure. 
Boston.  Height,  0.198  m. 
(Photograph.) 


life  are  represented.  So  we  find  bakers,  barbers  (Fig.  218),  a  man 
making  a  fire,  a  plowman  with  his  team,  women  washing,  grind- 
ing grain  or  kneading  dough,  and  the  like.  These  figures  show 
observation  and  humor,  sincerity  of  effort,  and  artistic  spirit,  but 
not  often  any  great  skill  in  modelling.  They  are  all  fashioned  by 
hand,  without  the  use  of  a  mould,  and  are  solid. 

Figures  resembling  the  so-called  papades  and  others  similar  to 
the  various  primitive  figurines  just  mentioned  have  been  found  also, 
though  in  smaller  numbers,  in  other  places  (Fig.  219).  Just  as 


TERRACOTTAS 


297 


the  invention  of  the  potter's  wheel  was  the  most  important  event 
in  the  progress  of  the  potter's  art,  so  the  art  of  the  coroplast,  or 
maker  of  clay  images,  was  raised  almost  at  a  bound  when  the 
process  of  making  hollow  figures  by  use  of  moulds  was  introduced. 
Moulds  had  been  used  by  the  Egyptians  and  also  by  other  peoples 
in  the  production  of  clay  images  at  an  early  date,  and  solid  figures 
formed  by  means  of  moulds  were  also  made 
in  Greece  comparatively  early,  but  the 
Greeks  did  not  use  moulds  to  make  hollow 
figures  until  toward  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century  B.C.  This  was  about  the  time  when 
Rhoecus  and  Theodorus  of  Samos  intro- 
duced, apparently  from  Egypt,  the  process 
of  casting  bronze  statues  hollow,  and  it  is 
not  impossible  that  the  use  of  moulds  in 
making  hollow  terracotta  figures  was  con- 
nected with  their  innovation.  At  any  rate, 
it  led  to  improvements  similar  to  those  pro- 
duced in  bronze  statuary  by  the  process  of 
hollow  casting. 

Solid  statuettes  formed  in  moulds  are 
comparatively  few  and  unimportant.  They 
Solid  figures  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the 
and  reliefs  time  before  the  introduction  of 
the  improved  process,  by  which  the  figures 
were  made  hollow,  but  are  less  primitive 
than  the  hand-made  figures.  They  have 
been  found  in  considerable  numbers  at  the 
Argive  Heraeum  and  elsewhere,  and  repro- 
duce the  types  made  familiar  by  the  hand-made  figures  at  the 
same  place,  but  with  some  improvement  in  appearance.  The 
separate  parts  of  jointed  dolls  (Fig.  220)  are  usually,  perhaps 
always,  solid,  to  whatever  date  they  belong,  and  small  figures 
of  animals  and  other  objects  intended  as  toys  are  frequently 
solid.  Certain  groups,  which  may  be  regarded  as  statuettes, 


FIG.  220. — Jointed  Doll. 
Boston.  Height, 
0.262  m.  (Photo- 
graph.) 


298 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


though  they  are  more  properly  reliefs  with  the  background 
removed,  are  also  solid.  These  are  the  so-called  Melian  reliefs 
(Fig.  221),  archaic  representations  of  mythological  scenes. 
Strictly  speaking,  these  groups,  like  other  terracotta  reliefs, 
are  not  made  in  a  mould,  but  the  mould,  or  stamp,  is  pressed 
upon  the  slab  of  clay.  The  backs  of  these  groups  are  flat,  and 

even  the  fronts  are  less  round- 
ing than  real  figures.  Similar 
groups  were  made  of  bronze 
and  intended,  as  were  per- 
haps also  the  terracottas,  to 
be  fastened  upon  the  flat 
surface  of  a  chest,  or  other 
article  of  furniture.  Such 
work  is  not  necessarily  con- 
fined to  any  one  period,  and 
by  no  means  all  terracotta 
reliefs  without  background 
are  archaic.  Real  reliefs  of 
terracotta  (Fig.  222)  are  also 
found  belonging  to  all  periods 
from  the  early  archaic  times 
down  to  the  days  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  In  the  form 

FIG.  221.  —  Melian   relief  from  Camirus.          c  ,          .  ., 

British    Museum.     Height,  0165    m.      of  rectangular  plaques  they 
(Photograph,  w.  A.  Manseli  &  Co..      could  be  used  as  votive  offer- 
ings or   for   the   adornment 

of  walls  or  furniture.  Some  of  the  Roman  reliefs  of  this  kind 
(called  Campana  reliefs,  because  they  were  numerous  in  the 
Campana  collection)  are  remarkably  fine.  As  architectural 
ornaments,  antefixes,  acroteria,  and  the  like,  terracottas  (both 
reliefs  and  figures  in  the  round)  were  much  used,  especially 
in  Italy. 

The   process   of  making  a   hollow  terracotta   figure  with  the 
use  of  moulds  is  as  follows.     In  the  first  place  the  mould  itself  is 


TERRACOTTAS 


299 


made  of  clay  and  fired  hard.1  Then  the  workman  takes  carefully 
prepared  clay,  from  which  all  impurities  and  gritty  substances  have 
been  removed,  and  presses  it  in  a  thin  coating  into  process  Of 
all  the  parts  of  the  mould,  taking  care  that  it  pene-  making  hol- 
trates  even  the  smallest  cut  or  indentation.  In  order  low  fiSures 
that  the  shell  of  his  statuette  may  not  be  too  thin,  he  adds  a 
second,  third,  or  even  fourth  thin  layer  of  clay,  pressing  each 
layer  firmly  against  its  pred- 
ecessor to  ensure  proper 
cohesion.  Then  the  whole 
is  allowed  to  dry.  In  dry- 
ing, the  clay  contracts  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  of  its  being 
removed  from  the  mould 
without  difficulty.  The 
workman  now  has  a  shell 
of  clay,  the  outside  of  which 
has  taken  on  exactly  the 
form  of  the  mould.  If  the 
object  to  be  made  is  a 
mask,  or  anything  which  is 
to  be  seen  from  one  side 
only  and  is  hollow  behind, 
the  process  of  moulding  is 
now  completed.  If,  how- 
ever, the  object  is  to  be 
seen  from  all  sides,  a  second  mould  must  be  used  to  form  the 
back.  The  two  half  figures  are  then  carefully  put  together  and 
cemented  by  means  of  thin,  half  liquid  clay.  In  some  instances 
the  back  is  made  of  a  flat  piece  of  clay,  not  carefully  moulded  like 
the  front.  A  vent  hole  is  usually  made  in  the  back,  to  allow  the 
hot  air  and  vapor  to  escape  during  the  firing.  When  the  front  and 

1  The  moulds  were  of  course  themselves  made  from  models.  These  were 
fashioned  by  hand,  with  the  aid  of  tools.  They  might  be  of  solid  clay,  or 
they  might  have  a  core  of  wood. 


FIG.  222.  —  Terracotta  relief  of  fifth  century 
from  Locri.  British  Museum.  Height, 
0.1275  m.  (Photograph,  Mansell  &  Co.) 


300 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


back  of  the  figure  have  been  put  together,  the  whole  is  usually 
retouched  with  a  smooth,  sharp  wooden  instrument.  In  retouch- 
ing, the  workman  has  an  opportunity  to  show  his  fineness  of  touch 
and  his  delicacy  in  the  rendering  of  details.  After  this  the  figure 
is  fired,  usually  not  at  a  very  great  heat,  and  finally  it  is  painted, 
for  all  Greek  terracottas  were  colored.  In  most  cases  the  colors 
are  put  on  over  a  thin  white  slip  or  wash.  Comparatively  few  fig- 
ures could  be  made  with  only  two  moulds.  If  the  arms  are  made 
detached  from  the  body,  each  arm  needs  two  moulds,  the  head 
is  usually  made  separately  and  demands  two  moulds,  and  various 
other  parts  are  frequently  made  in  separate  moulds.  A  figure  of 
a  winged  Eros,  from  Myrina,  is  found  by  Mr.  E.  Pettier  to  have 

required  in  all  fourteen 
distinct  moulds,  and  this 
is  not  an  unusually  com- 
plicated figure. 

The  advantages  derived 
from  the  use  of  moulds  are 
many.  The  Adyantages 
most  obvious  of  the  use  of 
is  that  the  moulds 
entire  figure,  being  com- 
posed of  a  thin  shell  of 
relatively  uniform  thick- 
ness,1 is  not  so  likely  to 
be  injured  by  irregular 
contraction  in  the  firing. 
Then,  too,  since  one  set  of 
moulds  may  be  used  over 
and  over,  it  is  worth  while 
to  make  them  with  much  greater  care  than  if  each  figure  had  to 
be  made  independently  from  the  beginning.  Moreover,  since  the 
various  parts  were  made  from  separate  moulds,  great  variety  could 

1  The  thickness  of  the  shell  is  only  relatively  uniform,  for  additional  clay 
is  often  spread  on  irregularly  inside. 


FIG.  223.  —  Two  figurines  from  the  same 
mould.  Boston.  Height,  0.281  m.  (Pho- 
tograph.) 


TERRACOTTAS  301 

be  obtained  with  little  trouble  by  changing  the  position  of  the 
head  or  the  arms,  by  putting  different  heads  upon  the  same  body 
(Fig.  223),  and  by  adding  different  ornaments  or  attributes. 
These  advantages  were  not  all  immediately  perceived,  but  they 
were  all  thoroughly  appreciated  by  the  makers  of  the  finest  terra- 
cottas, such  as  those  of  Tanagra  and  Myrina.  The  best  Greek 
terracottas  are  frequently  made  of  a  very  thin  shell  and  are  conse- 
quently very  light.  In  fact,  genuine  figurines  may  sometimes  be 
distinguished  from  forgeries  by  their  lightness. 

Among  the  earliest  figurines  made  from  moulds  is  a  series  of 
vases  in  the  form  of  draped  female  figures.  These  are  really 
statuettes,  but  at  the  top  of  the  head  is  an  opening,  about  which 
the  rim  or  lip  of  the  vase  stands  out  almost  like  a  crown.  These 
figures  are  almost  cylindrical,  with  the  arms  not  sepa-  Cylindrical 
rated  from  the  body,  resembling  the  marble  "  Hera  "  figure  vases 
from  Samos.  They  could  easily  be  made  from  two  moulds,  one 
for  the  front  and  one  for  the  back.  These  figures,  and  with  them 
others  similar  in  style,  have  been  found  in  many  places  from 
Phoenicia  to  Italy.  They  are  most  numerous  in  Rhodes,  and 
may  have  been  made  there.  Some  found  in  Sicily  seem  to  be 
of  Sicilian  manufacture,  but  they  all  belong  in  style  clearly  enough 
to  the  eastern  regions  of  the  Greek  world.  Perhaps  they  originated 
at  Samos  as  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  hollow  bronze  casting. 

Since  terracottas  are  small  and  easily  transported,  the  place  of 
discovery  is  not  necessarily  the  place  of  manufacture,  and  since 
the  moulds  are  also  easily  transported,  figures  could  be  made  at 
one  place  from  moulds  prepared  at  another.  The  quality  of  the 
clay  is  usually  a  good  indication  of  the  place  of  manufacture,  and, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  place  of  manufacture  is  also  the  place  where 
the  mould  was  made,  but  this  is  not  invariably  the  case.  So,  for 
instance,  some  figures  found  in  Cyprus  seem  to  have 
from  moulds  imported  from  Attica.  When  any  site 
large  number  of  figures  agreeing  in  style,  especially  if  they  show 
regular  artistic  development,  it  is,  of  course,  certain  that  the 
moulds  as  well  as  the  figures  were  made  at  that  place. 


302 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FlG.  224.  —  Primitive  terracotta,  from  Corinth; 
inscribed  llao-neAij?  icaAos.  Boston.  Height, 
0.112  m.  (Photograph.) 


Archaic  terracotta  figures,  belonging  to  the  sixth  and  early  part 
of  the  fifth  centuries,  follow  in  style  the  contemporary  sculpture,  so 

far  as  their  Archaic 
dates  are  Terracottas 
known.  They  have  been 
found  in  many  places, 
the  most  important  of 
which  is  perhaps  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens. 
These  Athenian  figures 
represent  draped  fe- 
males, many  of  which 
are  clearly  characterized 
as  Athena,  Artemis, 
Aphrodite,  or  Cybele. 
A  series  of  early  archaic 
figures  at  Corinth  repre- 
sents men  on  horseback  (Fig.  224),  beasts,  and  a  few  other  sub- 
jects, while  a  later,  but  still  archaic,  series  contains  many  repre- 
sentations of  Aphrodite.  Many 
of  the  archaic  figures  found  in 
Sicily  represent  Demeter  or  Per- 
sephone. To  the  same  period 
belong  many  busts  and  masks, 
made  from  one  mould,  without 
back,  and  apparently  intended 
to  be  set  or  fastened  against  a 
wall.  They  represent,  as  a  rule, 
though  not  without  exception, 
draped  females,  often  character- 
ized as  goddesses.  Many  such 
masks  were  found  on  the  Acropo- 
lis at  Athens,  many  more  in  Sicily, 

and  others  in  other  regions  (Fig.         FlG  ^  _  Mask  from  Rhodes 
225).     Busts  are  also  found  with     Boston.  Height,  0.23  m.   (Photograph.) 


TERRACOTTAS 


the  back,  as  well  as  the  front,  completely  moulded.  After  the 
archaic  period  busts  and  masks  are  comparatively  rare.  In  most 
places,  as  at  Athens,  they  were  probably  intended  for  votive  offer- 
ings at  shrines  and  temples.  Of  all  the  archaic  terracottas  known, 
much  more  than  half  represent  standing  or  seated  draped  female 
figures  of  dignified  appearance,  often  with  a  polos  or  other  high 
headdress,  or  with  a  veil  or  part  of  their  garment  drawn  over  the 
back  or  the  top  of  the  head.  But  many  other 
types  occur,  such  as  women  with  a  child  or 
children,  draped  and  nude  men,  most  fre- 
quently young,  animals,  men  on  horseback, 
recumbent  figures  both  male  and  female,  Sileni, 
monkeys,  Hermae,  sphinxes,  sirens,  and  jointed 
dolls.  Some  of  the  less  serious  figures  are 
rudely  made,  and  may,  in  spite  of  their  archaic 
appearance,  belong  to  a  later  period. 

Terracotta  figures  of  the  fifth  century,  fig- 
ures, that  is,  which  show  the  style  of  Phidias 
Terracottas  and  his  contemporaries,  are  com- 
of  the  fifth  paratively  few,  though  by  no  means 
century  absolutely  wanting.  They  have 
been  found  at  Athens,  Eleusis,  Megara,  in  the 
Crimea,  at  Camirus  (Rhodes),  Gela  (Sicily), 
Eretria,  Tanagra,  Tarentum,  and  elsewhere 
(Fig.  226).  The  types  are  for  the  most  part 
standing  and  seated  draped  female  figures, 
sometimes  characterized  as  goddesses.  At 
Tanagra  not  a  few  male  figures  of  this  period  have  been  found, 
and  at  the  Cabirium,  near  Thebes,  male  figures  predominate.  In 
spite  of  their  small  size,  the  terracottas  of  this  period  show  the 
simple  grandeur  and  dignity  of  the  contemporary  sculpture  (Fig. 
227).  The  comparatively  small  number  of  terracotta  figures  of 
this  period  may  be  due  to  the  great  popularity  of  Attic  vases. 
Not  only  in  Attica,  but  in  many  other  regions,  notably  in  southern 
Italy,  Attic  vases  were  placed  in  the  graves  of  the  dead  at  this 


FlG. '  226.  —  Figurine 
from  Ovadjik ;  fifth 
century.  Probably 
Attic.  Boston. 
Height,  0.152  m. 
(Photograph.) 


3°4 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


time,  and  this  custom  must  have  cut  off  one  great  source  of  de- 
mand for  terracottas,  causing  a  proportionate  decrease  in  the 
number  manufactured,  not  only  in  Attica  itself,  but  also  in  other 
places.  Terracottas  continued,  however,  to  be  made,  though  in 

diminished  numbers, 
throughout  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, and  the  early  part 
of  the  fourth  century, 
showing  in  style  the  in- 
fluence of  the  great  Attic 
art  of  the  times.  But  it 
was  not  until  the  art  of 
the  Attic  potters  had 
decayed  that  the  finest 
Greek  terracotta  figu- 
rines were  produced. 

The  primitive  and  ar- 
chaic terracottas  repre- 
sent, for  the  most  part, 
draped  female  figures. 
The  early  primitive  speci- 
mens are,  without  doubt, 
figures  of  a  goddess, 
who  is  characterized  as  a  goddess  usually  by  an  attempt  at  rich 
adornment.  Among  the  archaic  figurines  many  are 
clearly  characterized  as  goddesses  —  Aphrodite  by  a 
dove  held  in  her  hand,  Demeter  or  Persephone  by  the  polos, 
Cybele  by  a  lion,  Athene  by  helmet  or  aegis.  The  other  types  of 
this  period  are  also  for  the  most  part  religious,  or  at  least  mytho- 
logical. Among  the  figures  of  the  fifth  century  are  some  which 
are  not  clearly  intended  as  representations  of  deities,  heroes,  or 
worshippers,  but  which  preserve  more  or  less  exactly  the  types  em- 
ployed to  represent  religious  or  mythological  subjects.  In  the 
fourth  century  the  relative  number  of  such  figures  increases,  and 
the  types  which  once  possessed  religious  or  mythological  signifi- 


FlG.  227.  —  Bust,  probably  Attic.    Boston. 
Height,  0.438  m.     (Photograph.) 


Types 


TERRACOTTAS  305 

cance  are  gradually  changed,  until  they  seem  to  represent  ordinary 
persons  in  the  attitudes  of  everyday  life.  So  the  group  of  a  woman 
and  a  child,  which  no  doubt  once  represented  Ge  Kourotrophos,  or 
the  nourishing  nature-goddess  under  some  other  name,  now  repre- 
sents a  woman  and  a  child,  and  nothing  more  ;  a  nude  or  partially 
draped  female  figure  may  or  may  not  be  Aphrodite ;  a  youth  may 
be  a  youthful  deity  or  simply  a  young  man.  It  is  true  that  in  the 
early  times  of  Greek  sculpture  the  types  of  deities  were  not  fixed, 
so  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  know  whether  an  archaic  statue  rep- 
resents, for  instance,  Apollo  or  an  athlete ;  but  by  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century,  or  a  little  later,  the  types  of  the  chief  deities,  at 
least,  were  established.  After  this  there  comes  a  change.  The 
deities  lose  their  divine  dignity  and  become  men  and  women. 
The  Aphrodite  of  Cnidus  is  a  supremely  beautiful  woman,  and  the 
Apollo  Sauroctonos  is  a  very  attractive  boy,  but  in  these  statues 
no  attempt  is  made  to  suggest  to  the  beholder  anything  greater 
than,  or  different  from,  humanity.  The  gods  have  again  become 
indistinguishable  from  human  beings,  not  because  the  artist  lacks 
the  skill,  but  because  he  lacks  the  desire  to  distinguish  them. 
Terracotta  figurines  follow  the  course  of  the  development  of 
sculpture,  but  in  them,  even  more  than  in  statues,  the  tendency 
to  give  up  dignity,  seriousness,  and  grandeur  for  attractiveness, 
prettiness,  and  grace  is  manifest.  Doubtless  the  small  size  of  the 
figurines  emphasized  this  tendency,  which  led  to  the  production  of 
graceful  and  charming  little  figures  in  which  no  religious  signifi- 
cance is  visible. 

At  Tanagra  very  great   numbers  of  terracotta  figurines  have 
been  found  in  graves  of  different  periods.     Only  one  figurine  is 
of  Mycenaean  style,  the  so-called  papades  are   fairly  numerous, 
a  few  archaic  figurines  occur,  and  there  are  many  of  the  style 
of  the  fifth  century.     These  last  are  not  so  beautiful  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, because  they  are  not  retouched,  and  therefore  lack  delicate 
finish  in  detail.     It  was,  then,  in  the  second  half  of     Tanagra 
the  fourth  century,  no  new  thing  for  the  Tanagraeans  to     figurines 
deposit  terracotta  figurines  in  the  graves  of  their  dead ;  but  at  this 

GREEK   ARCH. 2O 


306  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

time  the  custom  seems  to  have  increased  in  popularity.  Simul- 
taneously with  this  increase  in  the  popularity  of  figurines  as  offer- 
ings to  the  dead  came  a  great  development  of  skill  and  taste  among 
the  Tanagraean  coroplasts,  who  produced  the  most  charming  of 
Greek  terracottas,  which  have  made  Tanagra  famous  throughout 
the  world.  The  beginning  of  the  new  style,  that  of  the  "Tanagra 
figurines"  par  excellence,  was  probably  not  much  after  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century,  but  it  reached  its  height  in  the  last  quarter 
of  the  fourth  century,  and  the  production  continued  into  the 
third  century.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  more  accurate  dates. 
"Many  details  tend  to  show  that  the  Tanagra  figures  must  be 
placed  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  successors,  i.e. 
the  beginning  of  the  Hellenistic  age  (B.C.  350-200).  One  such 
feature  is  the  treatment  of  Eros,  which  is  undoubtedly  post-Alexan- 
drine rather  than  Praxitelean.  Another  is  the  use  of  a  fan  and 
the  wearing  of  a  large  shady  hat  by  women.  The  fan  is  a  luxury 
doubtless  introduced  from  the  East,  in  the  fourth  century ;  it 
only  appears  on  the  later  painted  vases.  The  hat  was  worn 
by  women  as  early  as  the  fifth  century,  but  only  when  travelling, 
whereas  in  the  Tanagra  figures  it  forms  part  of  the  everyday 
costume.  It  is  also  found  on  Pompeian  paintings."  *  In  style  the 
Tanagra  figurines  show  very  strong  Praxitelean  influence,  but  also 
much  that  is  not  Praxitelean.  The  very  choice  of  subjects  from 
real  life  speaks  against  direct  connection  with  the  school  of 
Praxiteles.  It  may  well  be  that  the  coroplasts  were  influenced 
by  the  Boeotian  painters  of  the  fourth  century,  as  Mr.  Walters 
has  suggested. 

Heraclides,  who  travelled  in  Greece  about  the  middle  of  the 
third  century  B.C.,  describes  Tanagra  as  a  flourishing  and  well- 
ordered  town,  but  does  not  mention  the  trade  in  terracottas 
Neither  does  he  mention  the  women  of  the  place;  but  in  his 

1  Walters,  Catalogue  of  the  Terracottas  in  the  Department  of  Greek  ana 
Roman  Antiquities,  British  Museum,  p.  xl.  The  fan  appears  on  a  vase  in 
Boston  earlier  than  the  fourth  century,  but  it  was  evidently  not  popular  until 
some  time  after  its  introduction. 


TERRACOTTAS 


30? 


account  of  Thebes  he  describes  the  women  of  that  city,  and  his 
description  is  worth  translating  in  full,  as  it  applies  admirably  to 
the  women  of  Tanagra  such  as  we  see  them  in  the  terracotta 
figurines.  "Their  women  are  in  stature,  gait,  and  proportions 
the  most  graceful  and  beautiful  of  the  women  in  Greece.  .  .  . 
Their  manner  of  covering  the  face  with  their  garment  is  such  that 
the  whole  face  seems  to  be  covered  with  a  mask  ;  for  only  the  eyes 


FIG.  228.  —  Tanagra  figurine.     Boston. 
Height,  0.217  m-     (Photograph.) 


FlG.  229. — Tanagra  figurine.  British 
Museum.  Height,  0.137  m.  (Pho- 
tograph, W.  A.  Mansell  &  Co., 
London.) 


show  through,  and  the  other  parts  of  the  face  are  all  hidden  by 
their  cloaks.  They  all  wear  white  cloaks.  Their  hair  is  blond, 
gathered  in  a  knot  on  the  top  of  the  head.  This  is  called  by  the 
natives  lampadion.  Their  shoes  are  simple,  not  high,  red  in  color, 
and  small,  and  laced  so  that  the  feet  almost  seerr  naked."1 
Nearly  every  detail  of  this  description  is  illustrated  by  Tanagra 
figurines.  The  manner  of  shading  the  face  with  the  cloak  (Fig. 
228),  the  little  red  shoes,  the  knot  of  blond  hair  (Fig.  229),  and, 
1  Fragm.  Histor.  Graec.,  ed.  Miiller,  Vol.  II,  p.  257. 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


above  all,  the  grace  and  charm  of  figure  and  attitude  make  it 
clear  that  the  figurines  represent  the  women  of  Tanagra  as  they 
lived  and  moved  in  the  street,  where  a  traveller  could  see  them. 
Heraclides  does  not  mention  the  hats  and  fans  frequently  seen  in 
the  terracottas ;  and  the  cloaks  of  the  women  of  Tanagra  were,  if 
we  can  judge  by  the  colors  used  on  the  terracottas,  generally  not 
white,  but  in  all  essential  points  the  description  and  the  figurines 
agree.  The  figurines  are,  however,  not  limited  to  representations 

of  women  in  street 
costume.  On  the 
contrary,  we  have 
many  charming  fig- 
ures of  young  girls 
in  light  garments, 
such  as  could  be 
worn  only  in  the 
house,  perhaps  only 
in  the  retirement  of 
the  apartments  re- 
served for  the  women 
of  the  family.  We 
see  them  seated 
quietly,  with  head 
Boston,  bent  in  thought 
(Fig.  229),  or  play- 


FlG.  230.  —  Girls  playing  with  knuckle-bones. 
Height,  0.212  m.     (Photograph.) 


ing  games  with  their  companions  (Fig.  230),  —  always  the  same 
graceful,  attractive,  and  delightful  figures.  At  the  same  time  there 
is  no  monotony,  but  rather  great  variety.  Undoubtedly  the  Tanagra 
figurines  resemble  each  other,  not  only  in  technical  execution, 
but  also  in  general  character,  yet  no  two  are  alike,  and  this  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  same  moulds  were  used  for  different 
figures.  By  giving  the  body  a  different  head,  by  changing  the 
position  of  an  arm,  by  putting  a  garland  in  the  hair,  by  adding 
or  removing  a  fan,  by  using  a  different  combination  of  colors, 
the  coroplast  who  possessed  a  dozen  different  sets  of  moulds  could 


TERRACOTTAS  309 

produce  a  great  number  of  different  figures,  each  as  charming 
and  as  natural  as  the  other. 

The  coloring  of  the  Tanagra  figurines  is  especially  attractive, 
though  unfortunately  in  few  cases  well  preserved.  It  was  applied 
over  a  white  slip  or  wash,  and  this  is  likely  to  come  off  in  flakes, 
carrying  the  colors  with  it.  The  garments  are  usually  light  blue  or 
rose  pink,  the  hair  a  reddish  brown  approaching  auburn,  the  shoes 
red.  The  edges  of  fans  and  some  other  small  accessories  are 
sometimes  gilded.  Green  and  yellow  occur,  but  not  in  large 
masses.  The  nude  parts  are  white,  or  rather  slightly  tinted  to 
resemble  more  nearly  the  actual  color  of  life.1  Sombre  colors  are 
avoided.  The  whole  effect  is  light  and  gay,  but  not  brilliant  nor 
glaring.  Since  there  is  no  glaze,  the  coloring,  though  light,  is 
restful  and  pleasing. 

Most  of  the  Tanagra  figurines  reproduce  the  types  of  standing 
and  seated  women ;  some  represent  women,  usually  girls  or  at  any 
rate  young  women,  in  other  attitudes,  and  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  male  figures  serve  to  show  that  the  Tanagraean  coroplasts 
were  not  unwilling  nor  unable  to  represent  both  sexes.  The  male 
figures  are  almost  all  youths  (ephebi),  the  graceful  brothers  of  the 
Tanagra  women.  Sometimes  they  are  winged,  representing  Eros, 
and  some  of  the  Erotes  are  small  and  playful,  like  the  putti  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance. 

The  Tanagra  figurines  are  found  in  graves,  and  the  question  nat- 
urally arises,  "Why  were  such  things  deposited  with  the  bodies  of 
the  dead  ? "    The  question  is  difficult  to  answer.    A  few  of  the  Tana- 
gra figurines  may  represent  deities,  but  even  these  do  not  purp0se  of 
represent  the  divinities  especially  connected  with  death   Tanagra 
or  the  lower  world.     A  female  figure  clad  in  a  short  fi£unnes 
tunic  and  wearing  high,  close-fitting  boots  almost  certainly  repre- 
sents Artemis  the  huntress,  though  one  might  possibly  think  of 

1  The  surface  of  nude  parts  is  not  the  white  wash,  but  a  polished  coating. 
This  gives  a  slight  gloss  —  not  by  any  means  a  glaze  —  to  these  parts,  and  a 
similar  slight  gloss  is  seen  on  some  other  parts.  In  most  figures  this  gloss  is 
not  to  be  found,  because  the  coating  has  come  off. 


3io  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Atalanta,  and  the  winged  Erotes  are  certainly  not  ordinary  human 
beings.  The  figure  of  a  young  woman  holding  a  dove  or  an  apple 
may  represent  Aphrodite,  but  doves  and  apples  were  doubtless 
not  unknown  to  the  young  women  of  Tanagra.  The  type  may 
have  been  invented  as  a  type  of  the  goddess,  but  the  figurines  do 
not  necessarily  represent  the  goddess.  It  may  be  that  the  statuettes 
found  in  the  graves  were  once  the  property  of  the  deceased  and 
were  placed  in  the  grave  to  give  pleasure  after  death  to  one  who 
had  enjoyed  them  in  life ;  but  if  that  is  the  proper  explanation, 
it  is  strange  that  nowhere,  except  at  Priene,  in  Asia  Minor,  have 
similar  figurines  been  found  in  the  houses  which  they  once 
adorned.  The  conclusion  seems  almost  inevitable  that  the  Tana- 
gra figurines  were  made  to  be  deposited  in  graves.  Perhaps  the 
custom  of  placing  terracottas  in  graves  is  a  relic  of  the  savage  rite 
of  human  sacrifice  according  to  which  captives,  slaves,  or  wives  were 
slain  and  buried  with  the  dead,  or  perhaps  it  originated  at  a  time 
when  the  figures  really  represented  deities,  and  was  continued 
through  the  changes  in  artistic  style  and  tradition,  until  at  last 
the  ancient  meaning  of  the  custom  was  forgotten,  and  figurines 
were  placed  within  the  graves  merely  as  tokens  of  affection  on 
the  part  of  the  survivors,  much  as  now  flowers  are  laid  upon 
the  tomb.  The  same  explanation  may  apply  also  to  other  places 
where  figurines  of  no  apparent  religious  significance  are  found  in 
tombs. 

Figurines  of  the  same  style  as  those  from  Tanagra  are  found  at 
various  other  places,  not  only  in  the  neighborhood,  as  at  Ere- 
tria,  but  as  far  away  as  Myrina,  Kertch,  and  Cyrene. 
similar  to     Some  of  these  were  probably  imported  from  Tanagra, 
those  of       others  were  made  from   imported  moulds,  while  still 
others  are  local  imitations.     Those  made  from  im- 
ported moulds  are  distinguishable  from  imported  figures  by  the 
quality  of  the  clay,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  they  are  less  skil- 
fully retouched  than  the  genuine  Tanagra  figurines ;  indeed,  they 
are  sometimes  not  retouched  at  all.     The  productions  of  various 
places  are  sometimes  distinguishable  by  local  peculiarities,  and  are 


TERRACOTTAS 


Figure  231,  which 
,  is  probably  from 


almost  invariably  inferior  to  those  of  Tanagra. 
represents  two  girls  playing  a  game 
Corinth.     While  interesting  and 
attractive,  it  is  less  finely  wrought 
than  the  Tanagra  figures  of  the 
same  period. 

In  the  fourth  century  Greek 
art  turns  from  the  gravity  and 
The  fourth  dignity  of  the  pre- 
century  ceding  period  to 
lighter  themes  and  more  familiar 
treatment.  One  result  of  this 
tendency  is  seen  before  the  end 
of  the  century  in  the  Tanagra 
figurines,  which  represent  Greek 
girls  and  women  as  they  might 
be  seen  from  day  to  day.  The 
same  general  tendency  leads  also 
to  the  frequent  representation 
of  youthful  deities,  of  graceful 
rather  than  strong  forms,  of  little 
winged  Erotes,  and  the  like. 
Caricatures  also  become  popu- 
lar, and  realistic  representations 
of  old  women,  peddlers,  and 
other  persons  of  striking,  rather 
than  attractive,  appearance  are 
not  uncommon  as  the  Hellen- 
istic period  advances.  At  the  same  time  the  habit  of  imitating 
and  copying  earlier  works  of  art  became  established,  not  only 
among  sculptors,  but  also  among  coroplasts. 

The  art  of  the  Hellenistic  age  is  a  natural  development  from 
the  art  of  the  time  of  Praxiteles,  and  is  still  Greek  Hellenistic 
art;  but  the  spread  of  Greek  civilization  over  Asia         art 
and  Egypt  had  a  great  effect  upon  the  Greeks  themselves,  espe- 


FlG.  231.  —  Er.hedrismos,  from  Cor- 
inth (?).  Boston.  Height,  0.248  m. 
(Photograph.) 


3I2 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


Myrina 


daily  upon  those  who  lived  at  Alexandria  or  in  the  cities  of  Asia, 
even  in  those  cities  of  the  coast  which  had  been  Greek  for  centu- 
ries. Alexandria,  Pergamon,  Rhodes,  and  Tralles  were  great 
centres  of  Hellenistic  art.  It  is  natural  that  terracottas  showing 
the  qualities  of  Hellenistic  art  should  have  been  produced  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  it  is  fortunate  that  many  such  terracottas  have  been 
discovered. 

The  most  important  discoveries  of  Hellenistic  terracottas  —  or, 
rather,  of  later  Hellenistic  terracottas,  since  the  Tanagra  figur- 
ines belong,  properly  speaking,  to  the  early  part  of  the 
Hellenistic  age,  have  been  made  at  Myrina,  a  small 
place  not  far  from  Smyrna.  The  terracottas  were  found  in  graves 
dating  from  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  beginning  of 

the  Christian  era,  but  the  most 
numerous  and  interesting  figur- 
ines belong  to  the  third  and  sec- 
ond centuries  B.C.  Some  of  them 
are  identical  in  style  with  those 
of  Tanagra,  and  in  some  in- 
stances are  evidently  made  from 
imported  Tanagraean  moulds, 
but  such  figures  are  compara- 
tively few. 

The  great  majority  of  the 
statuettes  from  Myrina  show  an 
entirely  different  character. 
Whereas  the  Tanagra  figurines 
reproduce  human  beings  in  the 
costumes  and  attitudes  of  daily 
life  (genre  subjects),  the  sub- 
jects of  the  figurines  from  Myrina  are  for  the  most  part  mytho- 
logical, especially  Aphrodite,  Dionysus,  Heracles,  Eros,  and  Nike. 
Winged  figures  are  especially  common.  Eros  appears,  sometimes 
as  a  youth  (Fig.  232),  more  frequently  as  a  child  (Fig.  233),  in 
all  sorts  of  attitudes  and  actions,  —  seated,  standing,  flying,  play- 


FlG.  232.  —  Eros,  from  Myrina.    Bos- 
ton.   Height,  0.284  m-    (Photograph.) 


TERRACOTTAS 


313 


ing  the  lyre  or  the  flute, 
reading,  carrying  a  mirror, 
a  vase,  or  a  cornucopia, 
playing  with  a  dog,  a  hare, 
or  other  animal  (Fig.  234) 
in  a  group  with  Aphrodite, 
or  fighting  with  a  second 
Eros ;  in  one  instance  five 
Erotes  are  grouped  about 
a  table.  A  special  class 
of  Erotes  clad  in  the  hima- 
tion,  with  bare  legs,  bent 
head  (often  covered  with 
a  veil),  and  sober  mien  are 
different  from  the  joyous 
little  figuresjust  mentioned, 
and  seem  to  have  some 
definite  connection  with 
death  and  the  grave,  being 
companions  in  sentiment 


FIG.  233.  —  Eros  with  attributes  of  Heracles, 
from  Myrina.  Boston.  Hand-made.  Height, 
0.40  m.  (Photograph.) 

of  the  Sirens  with  whom  they  are 
found.  The  figure  of  Nike  also  oc- 
curs frequently,  not  in 
any  apparent  connec- 
tion with  the  idea  of 
victory,  but  simply  as  a 
charming  winged  female 
figure, — a  fitting  com- 
panion for  Eros.  Psyche, 
distinguished  from 
Nike  by  her  butterfly's 
wings,  is  but  seldom  rep- 

FlG.  234.  —  Eros  with  kid,  from  Myrina.    Boston. 

Height,  0.125  m.    (Photograph.)  resented.     So  great  is 


3 14  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  liking  for  winged  figures  that  even   Dionysus  appears  with 
wings. 

Several  groups  are  found.  Aphrodite  appears  grouped  with 
Eros,  and  with  Eros  and  a  female  figure,  probably  Peitho ;  groups 
of  Erotes  have  already  been  mentioned ;  Dionysus  is  grouped 
with  Eros,  with  Ariadne,  and  with  a  bacchant;  Apollo  and  Arte- 


FlG.  235. —  Group  from  Asia  Minor.     (Myrina  ?)     British  Museum. 
Height,  0.213  m-     (Photograph,  W.  A.  Mansell  &  Co.,  London.) 

mis  appear  together ;  Silenus  is  seen  carrying  the  infant  Dionysus ; 
groups  of  two  women  (Fig.  235),  a  woman  and  a  little  girl,  and  a 
man  and  a  woman  sitting  on  a  couch,  also  occur.  Some  of  these 
groups  are  very  attractive,  and  their  discovery  gave  rise  to  a  large 
number  of  forgeries,  by  which  many  experts  were  deceived. 

The  influence  of  sculpture  is  perhaps  more  marked  and  more 
direct  at  Myrina  than  at  Tanagra,  though  even  the  Myrina  figur- 
ines are  seldom,  if  ever,  direct  copies,  but  at  most  imitations 


TERRACOTTAS  315 

of  statues.  The  works  of  sculpture  imitated  are  for  the  most 
part  Hellenistic,  showing  the  influence  of  the  school  of  Lysippus. 
The  limbs  are  long  and  slender,  the  attitudes  varied  and  graceful. 
Comic  and  grotesque  figures  are  less  common  than  figures  of  the 
light  and  airy  mythological  character  already  mentioned,  but  they 
have  been  found  in  considerable  numbers.  Whereas  the  average 
height  of  the  Tanagra  figurines  is  about  20  cm.  (8  in.)  and  none 
exceed  39  cm.  (15^  in.),  at  Myrina  figures  35  cm.  (13!  in.)  to  40 
cm.  (15!  in.)  in  height  are  not  uncommon,  and  some  heads  evi- 
dently belonged  to  figures  of  even  greater  size. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  figurines  found  in  the  graves  at 
Myrina  are  all  broken,  not  by  the  excavators,  but  by  those  who 
placed  them  in  the  graves.  Not  infrequently  portions  of  the 
same  figure  were  found  in  different  parts  of  a  grave,  sometimes 
at  opposite  ends,  as  if  some  one  holding  the  figurine  in  his  hands 
beside  the  grave  had  broken  it  and  thrown  in  one  piece  with  each 
hand.  The  explanation  of  this  practice,  which  is  paralleled  in 
other  places  to  greater  or  less  extent,  has  as  yet  not  been  found. 

Inscriptions  of  two  kinds  are  found  on  the  figurines  of  Myrina. 
Those  scratched  on  wings,  which  were  often  found  without  the 
figures  to  which  they  belonged,  designate  the  figure  to  which  the 
wing  is  to  be  attached  ;  for  instance,  G4>  H  BOC  shows  that  the  wing 
belongs  to  the  figure  of  a  youth,  ^GPftN  that  a  "carrier"  is  to  be 
aided  in  his  task  by  the  wing,  OYMIATPON  that  the  figure  to 
which  the  wing  belongs  holds  a  censer.  Other  inscriptions  pressed 
or  scratched  on  the  backs  of  figures  or  their  bases  give  the  names 
of  the  makers,  either  the  individual  artists  of  the  figurines  or  the 
proprietors  of  the  manufactories,  probably  the  latter.  Such  names 
are  Diphilos,  Menophilos,  Pythodoros,  Hieron,  and  Attalikos.  The 
former  class  of  inscription  is  interesting  because  it  shows  something 
of  the  methods  employed  in  the  workshops,  the  latter  because  it 
proves  that  the  makers  of  the  figurines,  like  the  makers  jof  the 
Attic  vases  of  the  fifth  century,  had  so  much  reputation  that  they 
thought  it  worth  while  to  sign  their  work  as  a  guaranty  of  genuine- 
ness. 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Figurines  of  the  same  kind  as  those  of  Myrina  have  been  found 
at  Smyrna,  Priene,  Aegae,  in  the  Troad,  and  some  other  places  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  also  at  Cyrene  and  in  the  Crimea, 
similar  to  ^  *s  m  many  cases  extremely  difficult  to  distinguish 
those  of  the  productions  of  one  place  from  those  of  another. 
Sometimes  this  can  be  done  by  examination  of  the 
clay,  for  the  clay  used  in  different  places  is  often  very  different ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  different  varieties  of  clay  are  sometimes 
found  in  use  at  one  and  the  same  place,  as  at  Myrina,  where  nine 
varieties  have  been  distinguished.  The  different  kinds  of  clay 
used  at  Myrina,  and  at  other  places  where  large  numbers  of  terra- 
cottas have  been  found,  are  now  well  known,  though  not  always 
easily  distinguished,  but  it  is  still  often  impossible  to  determine 
with  certainty  the  place  of  manufacture  of  terracottas  which  have 
come  into  the  market  without  any  indication  of  the  place  of  dis- 
covery. This  is  true  not  only  of  those  figures  which  resemble  the 
figures  from  Myrina,  but  of  terracottas  in  general. 

The  chief  types  and  the  most  important  series  of  terracottas 
have  now  been  described  in  an  approximately  chronological  order. 
After  the  Hellenistic  period  figurines  continued  to  be  made  from 
Asia  to  Gaul,  but  they  cease  to  be  interesting  from  an  artistic  point 
of  view,  except  in  so  far  as  they  confirm  the  persistence  of  certain 
types  and  the  wide  distribution  of  certain  customs  or  beliefs,  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  worship  of  Mithras.  A  detailed  discussion  of 
the  decadence  of  art  as  seen  in  terracottas  would  be  of  little  value. 
It  will  be  more  useful  to  give  a  list  of  some  of  the  remaining  places 
where  important  discoveries  of  terracottas  have  been  made,  with  a 
brief  statement  of  the  types  and  classes  of  terracottas  found  in 
each  place.1 

The  primitive  figures  found  at  the  Argive  Heraeum,  Mycenae, 
Nauplia,  and  Tiryns,  and  the  early  archaic  figure-vases  from  Rhodes 
and  Samos,  have  already  been  mentioned,  as  have  also  the  archaic 

1  More  detailed  information  is  given  by  Winter,  Die  Typen  der  figurlichen 
Terrakotien,  Vol.  I,  pp.  i-cxxx,  and  Walters,  Catalogue  of  the  Terracottas 
in  the  .  .  .  British  Museum,  pp.  xxxv-xlix. 


TERRACOTTAS 


figures  from  Corinth.     The  other  types  of  terracottas  found  at 
these  places  are  less  distinctive,  and  need  not  be  described.     In 
Cyprus  primitive  figures  of  the  Bronze  Age  represent 
female  figures  and  oxen,  the  latter  better  modelled  where  terra- 

than  the  former.     Some  of  the  female  figures  seem  to   cottas  nave 

,  .    .  .      been  found 
carry  a  child  in  their  arms.     Ornaments  are  added  in 

great  profusion  by  sticking  on  little  pellets  of  clay.     These  figures 
are  followed  by  others  that  show  marked  Phoenician  or  Assyrian 
influence.     A  fine  series  of  statuettes 
from  Larnaka,  representing  a  goddess 
who  combines  the  attributes  of  Arte- 
mis, Aphrodite,  Demeter,  and  Cybele, 
is  completely  Hellenic  of  the  fifth  or 
fourth  century.     Some  of  the  moulds 
may  have  been  imported  from  Athens. 

The  chief  discoveries  of  terracottas 
in  Asia  Minor  (apart  from  Myrina) 
have  been  made  at  Smyrna  (Fig.  236), 
Pergamon,  Priene,  and  Tarsus.  These 
figures  are  for  the  most  part  similar 
to  those  from  Myrina.  At  Smyrna, 
however,  many  figurines  were  gilded, 
and  there  are  many  imitations  of 
sculpture,  sometimes  of  works  of  the 
fifth  century.  Heads  of  Zeus,  Serapis, 
and  Heracles,  which  are  rare  else- 
where, are  not  unusual  at  Smyrna,  and  comic  and  grotesque  figures 
are  common.  Among  the  figures  from  Priene  are  some  which 
differ  from  those  of  Myrina,  not  only  by  superior  workmanship, 
but  also  by  a  certain  grandeur  of  style. 

In  Greece  proper  many  sites  have  yielded  terracottas.  At 
Olympia  many  very  early  figures  were  found,  among  which  male 
figures  are  unusually  numerous.  At  Eretria  figures  of  various  dates 
from  the  sixth  to  the  third  century  have  come  to  light,  among  them 
some  good  specimens  of  the  fifth  century.  But  the  greater  num- 


FlG.  236.  —  Aphrodite,  from 
Smyrna.  Boston.  Height, 
0.374  m.  (Photograph.) 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


ber  of  Eretrian  figurines  are  Hellenistic, 
of  excellent  workmanship  (Fig.  237). 
These  resemble  the  figures  from  Myrina 
quite  as  much  as  they  do  those  from  Tan- 
agra,  and  display  a  marked  liking  for 
ornate  and  lifelike  figures,  genre  motives, 
and  Erotes  (Fig.  238).  From  the  Ca- 
birium,  near  Thebes,  come  numerous  male 
figures,  often  with  cocks  or  animals  in 
their  hands.  Many  of  these  are  grossly 
grotesque,  and  the  workmanship  is  poor. 
At  Eleusis  specimens  of  all  periods,  from 
Mycenaean  times  to  the  times  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  have  been  found,  but 
comparatively  few  are'  later  than  the  ar- 
chaic period.  Those  of  this  period  resem- 
ble those  found  at  Athens.  Megara  has 
also  furnished  terracottas  of  all  styles  from 
primitive  to  late. 
In  Sicily,  Akragas,  Syracuse,  Camarina,  Megara  Hyblaea,  and 
various  other  sites  have  furnished  archaic  figures,  Gela  figures  of 
the  style  of  the  fifth 
century,  and  many 
sites  attractive  figures 
of  the  fourth  century 
and  later.  In  gen- 
eral, the  Sicilian  fig- 
ures are  of  less  good 
workmanship  than 
those  of  Tanagra  or 
Myrina. 

Many    figurines 
have  been  found  in 

Italy  (Fig.  239),  but         FIG.  238.  —  Erotes  from  Eretria.     Boston.     Height, 
the  place    of  discov-  0-08  to  o.n  m.     (Photograph.) 


FIG.  237.  —  Figurine  from 
Eretria.  Boston.  Height, 
0.394  m-  (Photograph.) 


TERRACOTTAS 


319 


ery  is  often  unknown.  At  Tarentum  the  most  striking  type  is  the 
Sepulchral  Banquet,  but  many  excellent  single  figures  have  also 
been  found.  Some  of  these  are  archaic,  but  the  majority  belongs  to 
the  fourth  century  B.C.  and  later.  The  usual  types  are  equestrian 
figures,  standing  and  seated  female  figures,  dancing  girls,  youths, 
boys,  Erotes,  and  caricatures.  Other  types  also  occur.  Some 
of  the  Tarentine  figures  are  very  fine.  At  Locri,  late  archaic  re- 
liefs, with  subjects  relating  to  the  deities  of  the  lower  world,  have 
been  found.  Many  figures  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  B.C. 
have  been  found  at  Capua,  chiefly  representing  a  woman  with  a  child. 
Ruvo,  Canosa,  Egnatia, 
Rome,  Pompeii,  and 
other  places  have  fur- 
nished terracottas, 
chiefly  of  the  third  cen- 
tury and  later.  Some 
large  vases  from  Ca- 
nosa, adorned  with  fig- 
urines, show  excellent 
workmanship,  though 
this  method  of  com- 
bining the  human  form 
with  the  vase  is  utterly 
unpractical.  The  Pompeian  terracottas  were  made,  for  the  most 
part,  between  69  and  79  A.D.  In  Etruria  few  Greek  terracottas 
have  been  found;  but  the  Etruscans  themselves  were  technically 
skilful  workers  in  terracotta,  since  we  know  they  made  acroteria, 
pediment  groups,  and  even  cult  statues  of  this  material.  The 
extant  Etruscan  terracottas,  however,  are  chiefly  architectural 
ornaments,  ash-chests  (cistae),  upon  which  scenes,  usually  from 
Greek  myths,  are  represented  in  relief,  and  sarcophagi,  on  the  lids 
of  which  are  recumbent  figures,  often  of  life  size.  These  works 
are  seldom  remarkable  for  fineness  of  execution  or  artistic  feeling. 
At  Cyrene,  in  Africa,  some  archaic  figures,  for  the  most  part 
representing  a  seated  goddess,  and  many  of  Tanagraean  style,  have 


FIG.  239.  —  Heracles,  from  Santa  Maria  di  Capua. 
Height,  0.304  m.     (Photograph.) 


320  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

been  found.  Some  of  these  are  evidently  imported  ;  others,  which 
are  distinguishable  by  their  inferior  finish,  are  local  imitations. 
These  are  followed  by  figures  of  animals  and  of  Eros  or  a  boy  rid- 
ing upon  an  animal.  Many  of  these  are  of  poor  style  and  work- 
manship. Some  representations  of  a  boy  struggling  with  a  goose 
may  be  influenced  by  the  statue  of  the  boy  with  a  goose,  by  Boe- 
thus,  a  sculptor  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  At  Naucratis,  in  Egypt, 
some  early  figures  are  known,  as  well  as  some  imported  speci- 
mens of  Tanagraean  style.  Later  figures  are  strongly  influenced 
by  Egyptian  cults. 

The  terracottas  from  the  Crimea  (Kertch)  include  a  few  early 
specimens,  imported  Attic  figures  of  the  fifth  century  and  inferior 
local  imitations,  as  well  as  a  much  larger  number  of  figurines  of 
the  Hellenistic  period  and  later.  These  are  similar  to  the  Myrina 
terracottas,  but  inferior  to  them  in  style  and  finish. 

Greek  terracottas  are  found  for  the  most  part  in  graves,  as  at 
Tanagra  and  Myrina,  or  on  the  sites  of  temples,  as  on  the  Athe- 
Purpose  of  man  Acropolis  and  elsewhere.  Only  at  Priene  have 
terracotta  they  been  found  in  private  houses,  except  where,  as  at 
Pompeii,  they  belonged  to  lararia,  or  private  shrines. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  seems  improbable  that  they  were 
made  primarily  for  the  adornment  of  the  home.  Certainly  that 
cannot  have  been  their  purpose  in  the  earliest  times.  But  the 
same  types  are  found  in  graves  and  sanctuaries,  and  the  question 
naturally  arises,  "For  what  purpose  were  the  figurines  made?" 
The  most  reasonable  reply  seems  to  be  that  given  by  M.  Pettier. 
The  figurines  had,  no  doubt,  originally  a  definite  meaning  and  a 
definite  purpose,  though  this  purpose  may  not  have  been  the  same 
in  all  places,  but  as  time  went  on  and  the  types  became  more  varied 
and  less  and  less  distinctly  religious,  the  purpose  of  each  figurine 
depended  chiefly  upon  the  intention  of  the  purchaser.  Exactly 
similar  figures  might  be  by  one  person  deposited  as  a  votive  offer- 
ing in  a  temple  and  by  another  placed  in  a  grave.  In  either  case 
the  figure  was  intended  as  a  pious  gift.  In  some  places,  as  at  Tana- 
gra and  Myrina,  such  pious  gifts  were  most  frequently  deposited  in 


TERRACOTTAS  321 

graves,  and  therefore  the  coroplasts  of  these  places  undoubtedly 
made  their  figurines  with  the  expectation  that  they  would  be  buried 
with  the  dead.  In  other  places  the  makers  must  have  intended 
their  works  primarily  for  votive  offerings;  but  the  purpose  for  which 
the  figurines  were  to  be  employed  had,  in  the  fourth  century  at  any 
rate,  little  or  no  effect  upon  their  style  or  subject.  These  charm- 
ing little  works  were  made  to  appeal  to  the  taste  of  the  Greeks  of 
that  time,  and  they  now  delight  the  eyes  of  nations  never  dreamt 
of  by  the  coroplasts. 


GREEK   ARCH.  —  21 


CHAPTER  V 

METAL  WORK 

(BRONZES,  SILVERWARE,  JEWELRY) 

THE  Prehellenic  inhabitants  of  the  coast  lands  and  islands  of 
the  Aegean  attained  great  skill  in  the  working  of  bronze,  gold, 
and  silver,  and  some  of  their  beautiful  and  remarkable  works 
have  been  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  Prehellenic  Greece.  In 
the  period  that  followed  the  fall  of  the  "  Mycenaean  "  civilization, 
the  ancient  skill  and  taste  were  lost,  so  that  the  history  of  Hel- 
Metal  work  lenic  art  begins,  in  metal  work  as  in  other  branches, 
and  metals  hardly  before  the  seventh  century,  even  though  some 
of  the  earlier  traditions  did  survive,  especially  along  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Aegean.  Throughout  antiquity  the  metals  em- 
ployed for  artistic  and  ornamental  purposes  were  bronze,  gold, 
and  silver ;  for  iron,  the  use  of  which  was  first  introduced  in  the 
last  years  of  the  "  Mycenaean  "  epoch,  was  employed  chiefly  for 
nails,  clamps,  tools,  weapons,  and  other  articles  which  offer  little 
opportunity  for  the  display  of  artistic  ability.  Besides,  the  sur- 
face, at  least,  of  iron  is  so  easily  destroyed  by  rust,  that  even  if 
that  metal  had  been  more  generally  used  than  it  was,  little  artistic 
Greek  iron  work  would  now  be  preserved.  Lead,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  ill  adapted  to  artistic  uses,  being  too  soft,  too  easily 
melted,  and  too  heavy  in  proportion  to  its  strength.  Moreover, 
it  contracts  greatly  in  passing  from  the  molten  to  the  solid  state, 
and  its  surface  has,  after  exposure  to  the  air,  a  dull  and  unat- 
tractive color.  Great  numbers  of  small  leaden  images  have  been 
found  in  the  recent  excavations  at  the  temple  of  Artemis  Orthia, 
at  Sparta,  and  leaden  figurines  or  reliefs  from  other  places  are  not 
unknown,  but  these  are  of  little  importance  in  the  history  of  art, 
and  may  be  passed  over  without  further  mention. 

32? 


METAL   WORK 


BRONZE 


323 


The  word  "  bronze  "  designates,  strictly  speaking,  a  mixture,  or 
alloy,  of  copper  and  tin.  The  ancients,  however,  employed  only 
one  word  (^aA/co's  in  Greek,  aes  in  Latin)  to  designate  copper 
and  its  various  alloys.  In  ancient  bronzes  there  are  found,  be- 
sides copper  and  tin,  appreciable  quantities  of  silver,  gold,  and 
zinc,  though  the  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  known  in  modern 
times  as  brass,  seems  to  have  been  almost  unknown.  The 
composition  of  ancient  bronzes  varies  greatly.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  Bronze  Age  the  metal  used  was  almost  pure  copper,  and 
in  the  classical  period  the  proportions  of  different  metals  in  the 
composition  were  varied  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  different 
colors  or  other  qualities,  and  probably  the  presence  of  various 
other  metals  in  the  copper  ores  led  to  various  combinations. 
In  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  ancients,  the  word 
"  bronze  "  is  used  here  to  denote  copper  and  its  various  alloys  with- 
out distinction.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  in  classical  times,  as  in  later  ages,  the  "  bronze  "  employed 
was  chiefly  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin. 

Bronze  was  far  more  generally 'used  in  ancient  than  in  modern 
times,  not  only  for  purely  decorative  purposes,  but  also  in  the 
manufacture  of  furniture,  household  utensils,  and  other  objects, 
many  of  which  were  beautiful  in  shape  and  richly  adorned  with 
reliefs.  The  fibula,  or  safety  pin,  which  became 
known  in  Greece  at  the  very  end  of  the  "  Mycenaean  " 
epoch,  was  usually  made  of  bronze,  though  in  its  more  elaborate 
and  ornamental  forms  it  was  sometimes  of  gold.  Fibulae  vary 
greatly  in  size,  the  largest  bronze  specimens  being  six  inches,  or 
even  more,  in  length.  The  earliest  fibulae  in  Greece  are  simple 
safety  pins,  made  of  a  single  wire,  sharpened  at  one  end,  twisted 
in  a  spiral  or,  rather,  circular  curve  about  the  middle,  in  order  to 
give  it  a  spring,  and  at  the  other  end  so  bent  as  to  form  a  catch 
and  shield  for  the  point  (Fig.  240).  To  this  simple  pin  succeeds 
the  fibula  with  an  arch  (bow  fibula),  which  is  often  formed  like 


324 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


a  series  of  beads  or  adorned  with  projecting  rings  (Fig.  241). 
Sometimes  the  catch  or  shield  for  the  point  is  widened  into  a 
broad  plaque  (Fig.  242),  which  is  often  decorated  with  incised 
designs;  the  resemblance  of  these  to  the  geometrical  designs  of 
the  Dipylon  vases  serves  to  fix  their  approximate  date.  Such 
fibulae  are  sometimes  very  large.  The  boat 
fibula  (fibula  a  navicella)  has  an  arch  some- 
what  resembling  a  canoe  in  shape,  which  is 
often  decorated  with  designs  in  relief  or  in- 
cised. Sometimes  the  shield  of  the  point  is 
lengthened,  and  often  the  shield  and  the  arch 
are  richly  adorned  with  chasing,  animals' 
heads,  and  other  decorations,  or  pendants 
were  hung  from  the  arch.  Often,  too,  the 
arch  is  flattened  and  broadened  or  rounded, 
and  thus  the  safety  pin  becomes  a  brooch. 
An  early  and  attractive  form  of  flat  brooch  is 
made  by  twisting  a  wire  into  a  double  spiral. 
This  may  be  made  entirely  of  one  wire,  one 
end  of  which  forms  the  pin,  the  other  the 
catch  (Fig.  243).  Sometimes  a  quadruple  spiral  is  made,  in  which 
case,  as  in  that  of  the  more  elaborate  brooches,  the  pin  and  the 
catch  are  made  of  separate  pieces.  Other  brooches  are  far  more 
elaborate,  and  are,  like  the  brooches  of  modern  times,  usually  of 
gold.  In  general,  the  decoration  of  fibulae  follows  the  same  lines 
of  development  as  vase-painting  and  relief  work. 

Many  bronze  repouss^  reliefs  of  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries 
B.C.  have  been  found  at  Olympia  and  elsewhere.  An  especially 
important  relief  from  Olympia  (Fig.  244),  which  was 
apparently  intended  to  be  fastened  as  a  sheathing  on 
one  side  of  a  pedestal  or  something  of  the  sort,  offers  an  interest- 
ing example  of  the  juxtaposition  of  traditional  designs,  such  as 
the  "  Persian  Artemis,"  and  new,  thoroughly  Hellenic  representa- 
tions, such  as  the  combat  with  the  centaur.  It  is  perhaps  worth 
noticing  that  the  hand  of  the  artist  seems  surer  in  the  execution 


FIGS.  240-243.  —  Fibu- 
lae. ( The  Argive 
Heraeum,  Vol.  II. 
Pis.  84,  87,  86,  85.) 


Early  reliefs 


METAL   WORK 


325 


of  the  traditional  than  in  that  of  the  newer  designs.  That  the  art 
represented  by  this  relief  is  Ionic,  that  it  belongs,  in  other  words, 
to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  is  evident,  though  the  relief  itself  may 
have  been  made  in  continental  Greece.  A  series  of  repouss6  reliefs 
on  thin  strips  of  bronze  divided 
into  nearly  square  fields  by  bands 
of  conventional  designs  has  been 
called  Argive,  Argive-Corinthian, 
or  Peloponnesian,  chiefly  perhaps 
because  in  an  inscription  (dAios 
yepuv)  on  one  of  them,  found  at 
Olympia,  the  Argive  form  of  the 
letter  lambda  occurs.  The  de- 
signs, however, — sphinxes,  griffins, 
lions,  mythological  scenes,  and 
conventional  patterns, — are  such 
as  occur  on  Ionic  vases.  It  is 
therefore  probable  that  these  re- 
liefs are  products  of  Ionic  art,  and 
not  unlikely  that  most  of  them 
were  made  at  Chalcis  and  Athens. 
Indeed,  it  is  evident  that  in  all 
branches  of  art,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Doric  style  of  architecture, 
the  Ionic  Greeks  (that  is,  the 
Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  and  those 
who  had  close  connection  with  Asia 
Minor)  were  more  advanced  in  the 
seventh  and  sixth  centuries  than 
the  other  members  of  the  Greek 


FlG.  244.  —  Bronze  relief  from 
Olympia.  (Ofympia,  Vol.  IV, 
PL  38.) 


race,  and  in  nothing  is  this  more  clearly  seen  than  in  the  bronzes. 
Among  bronze  utensils  the  large  and  richly  decorated  caldrons 
and  tripods  of  the  sixth  century  are  especially  inter-     Tripods, 
esting.     The  original  purpose  of  tripods  was  evidently  Ionic  stYle 
to  support  the  caldron  or  pot  over  the  fire,  but  at  an  early  date 


326 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


caldrons  and  tripods  came  to  be  used  as  prizes  for  games  (much  as 
cups  are  used  in  modern  times),  as  votive  offerings,  or  as  indica- 
tions of  the  wealth  and  taste  of  their  owner.  The  caldrons  were 

frequently  adorned  with  griffins' 
heads  or  animals  riveted  on  about 
the  mouth  or  on  the  shoulder  of 
the  vessel,  the  tripods  had  claw 
feet,  and  the  uprights  that  rose 
from  the  feet  were  adorned  with 
strips  of  conventional  patterns  in 
relief,  as  were  also  the  horizontal 
bands  that  held  the  uprights  to- 
gether and  the  handles  by  which 
the  tripods  were  moved.  The 
feet  of  the  earlier  tripods  are 
rudely  cast  solid,  later  they  are 
formed  of  hammered  and  riveted 
plates,  and  finally  they  are  cast 
hollow.  Technical  progress  is 
seen  also  in  the  griffins  and  ani- 
mals that  adorn  the  caldrons,  in 
the  caldrons  themselves,  and  in 
the  ornaments  of  the  tripods. 
Some  tripods,  instead  of  consist- 
ing of  three  uprights  joined  by 
horizontal  strips  of  bronze,  have 
the  form  of  triangular  pedestals 
adorned  with  reliefs  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  great  crown,  like 
the  calyx  of  a  flower,  in  which 
the  caldron  rests.  Three  espe- 


FlG.  245. —  Bronze  tripod.  Provisional 
restoration.     (Photograph.) 


daily  fine  examples  of  this  class,  found  in  Italy,  but  undoubtedly 
Ionic  Greek  work,  are  the  property  of  Mr.  James  Loeb,  and  are 
now  in  the  Fogg  Museum  of  Art  of  Harvard  University  and  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York  (Fig.  245).  Here  all  the 


METAL  WORK 


327 


skill  and  refinement  of  Ionic  art  of  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century  are  displayed. 

The  same  style  is  seen  in  many  smaller  utensils  and  was  imitated 
by  Etruscan  artisans.  Examples  of  such  imitation  are,  for  instance, 
the  fine  and  wonderfully  preserved  bronze-sheathed  chariot  from 
Norcia,  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York,  and  the 
sheets  of  repousse  reliefs  from  Perugia  (now  for  the  most  part  in 
Munich),  which  once  adorned  a  similar  chariot.  In  these  the 
technical  skill  displayed  is  great,  but  the  refinement  and  the  careful 
original  study  of  nature, 
which  contribute  so  much 
to  the  beauty  of  genuine 
Greek  work,  are  wanting. 
An  especially  fine  example 
of  somewhat  later  Ionic 
work  (about  500  B.C.)  is  a 
large  (height,  0.21  m.)  han- 
dle of  an  amphora  with  vo- 
lutes (Fig.  246)  from  Cilicia. 
The  rich  ornamentation  is 
beautifully  executed,  and 
the  running  figure  (Gor- 
gon?) with  four  wings  shows, 
as  do  numerous  statuettes 
from  Athens  and  other  sites, 
the  popularity  of  the  type  represented  by  the  marble  statue  from 
Delos  ascribed  to  Archermus  (p.  209). 

From  the  sixth  century  B.C.  to  the  latest  period  of  Greek  art, 
bronze  reliefs  and  utensils,  as  well  as  statuettes,  reproduce  the  pro- 
gressive changes  of  style  and  taste.     Among  the  most 
beautiful  bronze  reliefs  are  two  in  the  British  Museum 
(Catalogue  of  Bronzes,  No.  285,  pi.  viii),  said  to  have  been  found 
in  Italy,  near  the  river  Siris.     They  are  works  of  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  and  were  anciently  attached  to  a  cuirass  to  cover  the  shoulder 
clasps.     On  each  a  combat  between  a  Greek  and  an  Amazon  is 


FIG.  246.  —  Bronze  amphora  handle,  from 
Cilicia.  (Collection  de  Clercq,  Vol.  III. 
PI.  Iviii,  No.  423.) 


328 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


represented,  and  although  the  relief  is  so  high  that  some  parts  of  the 
figures  are  almost  detached  from  the  background,  yet  the  whole  is 

wrought  from  a  single  sheet 
of  bronze.  In  freedom  of  at- 
titude, grace  of  posture,  deli- 
cacy of  execution,  and  breadth 
of  treatment,  these  two  small 
reliefs  are  unsurpassed. 

Among  bronze  reliefs,  those 
on  circular  mirror  cases  form 

an  interesting  se- 

Mirrors 
nes.      Some    of 

these,  for  instance  one  in  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  BOS- 


FIG.  247. —  Bionzf  mirror  case.     Boston. 
(Photograph.) 

ton  (Fig.  247),  which  was  found  in 
Greece  and  may  be  attributed  to  the 
fourth  century  B.C.,  possess  some- 
thing of  the  freedom  and  real  artistic 
grandeur  seen  in  the  Siris  bronzes. 
Greek  mirrors  consisted  of  a  polished 
metal  disk.  This  was  in  early  times 
supported  on  a  standard,  which  often 
took  the  form  of  a  statuette.  An 
excellent  example  of  a  mirror  of  this 
kind,  which  dates  from  that  time  in 
the  fifth  century  when  sculpture  was 
not  yet  entirely  free  from  archaism, 
but  had  already  attained  no  little 
grace  and  charm,  is  in  the  Museum 
at  Boston  (Fig.  248).  In  the  fourth 


FlG.  248. —  Mirror.    Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


METAL  WORK  329 

century,  however,  the  mirror  was  usually  enclosed  in  a  circular 
bronze  case,  which  was  adorned  with  figures  in  relief,  while  the 
mirror  itself  was  left  without  ornamentation.  This  was  the  Greek 
practice,  but  in  Etruria  mirror  cases  were  little  used,  and  the  metal 


FIG.  249.  —  Etruscan  mirror.     Boston.     (Photograph.) 

disks  were  decorated  on  the  back,  usually  with  scenes  from  Greek 
mythology.  These  decorations  are  very  seldom  executed  in  re- 
lief, but  are  almost  always  engraved.  A  few  fine  examples  of  en- 
graved mirrors  of  genuine  Greek  workmanship  are  known,  but 
nearly  all  the  engraved  mirrors  are  Etruscan.  The  persons  of 


330 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Greek  mythology  are  usually  designated  by  inscriptions  written  in 
the  corrupt  form  of  the  Greek  alphabet  adopted  by  the  Etruscans, 
and  the  names  are  for  the  most  part  corrupt  forms  of  the  Greek 
(e.g.  Achle  for  Achilleus),  though  some  of  them  are  of  foreign 
origin  (e.g.  Menfra  for  Athena).  The  designs  are  well  adapted 
to  the  circular  field  and  show  great  skill  in  drawing  and  execution, 
but  original  observation  of  nature,  artistic  sentiment,  and  lively 
imagination  are  wanting  (Fig.  249).  Similar  incised  drawings 

were  employed  by  the  Etruscans 
for  the  decoration  of  other  ob- 
jects, especially  the  high,  round 
boxes  called  cistae,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  perhaps 
the  famous  Ficoroni  cista  in  the 
Museo  Kircheriano  at  Rome. 

Bronze  reliefs  were  employed 
by  the  Greeks  in  the  decoration 
of  various  objects  of  domestic 
use.  A  bronze  situla,  or  pail, 
found  in  southern  Italy  and  now 
in  the  Museum  at  Boston  (Fig. 
250)  is  an  excellent  example  of 
early  Hellenistic  design.  The 
Museum  at  Naples  contains 
many  bronzes  from  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii,  which  once  formed 
parts  of  the  furniture  of  Roman 
houses.  Similar  objects  are  found  in  various  other  museums. 
Many  of  them  are  beautiful  in  their  execution  and  in  their  fitness 
for  the  purposes  they  are  intended  to  serve.  Even  though  they 
were  actually  made  in  Roman  times,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
history  of  art  they  may  be  regarded  as  Hellenistic  works. 

Bronze   statuettes   reflect,  even  more  'completely, 
perhaps,  than  bronze  reliefs  or  terracottas,  the  pro- 
gressive development  of  Greek  sculpture.     Often  such  statuettes 


FIG.  250.  —  Bronze  situla.     Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


Statuettes 


METAL   WORK 


33' 


formed  parts  of  utensils,  such  as  mirror  standards  (Fig.  248), 
handles  of  vessels  or  covers,  or  decorative  additions  to  caldrons 
and  the  like,  but  frequently  they  served  no  such  purpose,  and  were 
independent  works  of  art,  intended  to  be  dedicated  at  shrines, 
deposited  in  graves,  or  set  up  as  ornaments  in  houses.  The 
technical  processes  (p.  197)  are  the  same  in  making  statuettes  and 
statues  (except  that  small  statuettes  are  frequently  cast  solid), 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  really  great  sculptors  occasionally 
made  figures  of  small  size.  On  the  other  hand,  statuettes  intended 
for  votive  offerings  or  to  be  set  up  in  shrines  were  often  sold  to 
poor  persons,  and  were  therefore  cheaply  made  by  workmen  of 
no  artistic  ability.  Naturally,  therefore, 
bronze  statuettes  exhibit  even  greater 
differences  of  quality,  both  in  design  and 
execution,  than  do  terracotta  figurines. 

As  regards  the  types  represented, 
bronze  statuettes  show  no  such  predilec- 
tion for  female  forms  as  is  seen  in  terra- 
cottas, nor  do  they  at  any  time  or  place 
tend  so  strongly  to  the  representation  of 
human  beings  in  the  common  attitudes 
and  activities  of  daily  life  as  do,  for  in- 
stance, the  Tanagra  figurines  of  the  best 
period,  though  genre  figures  and  even 
caricatures  in  bronze  are  not  uncommon 
in  Hellenistic  and  Roman  times.  It  is 
also  to  be  observed  that  bronze  statuettes 
are,  far  more  frequently  than  terracottas, 
obvious  copies  of  famous  statues.  While 
it  cannot  be  asserted  that  the  famous 
Payne  Knight  statuette  in  the  British  Mu- 


FlG.  251.  —  Payne  Knight 
statuette.  British  Muse- 
um. (Photograph,  W.  A. 
Mansell  &  Co.,  London.) 


seum  is  really  a  copy  of  the  Apollo  Philesius  of  Canachus,  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  the  statuette  must  have  been  intended  to 
recall  the  great  statue,  both  as  regards  pose  and  attributes,  although 
it  was  made  some  time  after  the  statue  itself.  It  may  therefore, 


332 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


with  the  fine  statuette  from  Piombino,  another  statuette,  now  in 
the  Louvre,  a  late  marble  relief  found  at  Miletus,  and  Milesian 
coins,  serve  to  give  us  some  conception  of  the  work  of  Canachus 
(Fig.  251). 

A  heavy,  somewhat  clumsy  statuette  found  at  Ligourio,  near  the 
ancient  sanctuary  of  Epidaurus,  has  been  regarded  as  an  Argive 
work  of  the  time  before  Polyclitus.  The  fact  that  it  was  found  in 
the  Argolid  does  not  necessarily  show  that  it  is  Argive  work,  as  a 
small  statuette  is  easy  to  transport,  and  undoubtedly  the  impor- 


FlG.  252.  —  Statuette  from  Ligourio.    (jctf/4  Berlin  Winckelmannsprogramm,  PI.  i.) 

tance  of  this  small  figure  has  been  overrated.  It  is,  however, 
admissible  to  regard  it  as  an  example  of  one  of  the  possible  pre- 
liminary steps  leading  up  to  the  style  of  Polyclitus  (Fig.  252). 
A  fine  bronze  statuette  in  the  British  Museum  is  evidently  a  copy 
of  the  Marsyas  of  Myron,  though  the  treatment  of  the  hair  and 
other  details  show  that  the  copyist  was  not  in  all  respects  faithful 
to  the  style  of  the  original  (Fig.  253).  Yet  this  bronze  gives  the 
posture  of  the  satyr,  and  serves  to  correct  the  false  impression  made 
by  the  statue  in  the  Lateran  with  its  modern  restorations.  Statu- 
ettes which  reproduce  the  styles  of  almost  all  the  famous  sculptors 


METAL  WORK 


333 


are  known,  and  among 
them  are  some  real  master- 
pieces of  art.  For  the  most 
part,  however,  even  those 
which  are  evidently  copies 
of  famous  works  by  great 
masters  are  somewhat 
carelessly  executed.  An 
example  of  a  statuette  of 
mediocre  workmanship, 
which  is  nevertheless  inter- 
esting because  it  repro- 
duces a  famous  statue,  is 
the  copy  of  the  Aphrodite 
of  Cnidus  in  the  De  Clercq 
collection  (Fig.  254).  It 


FIG.  254.  —  Aphrodite  of  Cni- 
dus. {Collection  De  Clercq, 
Vol.  Ill,  PI.  ii.) 


FIG.  253.  —  Statuette  of  Marsyas.     British  Mu- 
seum.   (Brunn-Bruckmann,  PI.  209  b.) 

would  be  a  long  and  difficult  task 
to  compile  a  list  of  all  the  bronze 
statuettes  that  reproduce  directly  or 
indirectly  the  known  works  of  the 
great  sculptors,  and  those  which  are 
probably  imitations  of  lost  or  unknown 
statues  are  even  more  numerous.  A 
complete  study  of  bronze  statuettes 
would  be  little  less  than  an  exhaustive 
treatise  on  the  styles,  types,  and 
motives  of  Greek  statuary;  but  the 
importance  and  interest  of  these 
small  works  .of  art  may  have  been 
made  sufficiently  clear  in  the  few 
words  devoted  to  them 


334  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  WORK 

Closely  connected  with  work  in  bronze  is  work  in  gold  and  sil- 
ver. It  will  be  convenient  to  treat  first  of  large  gold  and  silver 
ornaments  and  utensils,  such  as  cups  and  other  vessels  for  table 
use,  reserving  jewelry  for  separate  treatment.  Probably  the  art 
of  the  goldsmith  and  silversmith  began  to  revive  after  the  fall  of 
the  Mycenaean  civilization  as  early  as  the  art  of  the  bronze  worker ; 
but  few,  if  any,  vessels  or  utensils  of  the  precious  metals  exist 
which  can  be  assigned  to  a  very  early  date.  Some  small  repouss6 
reliefs  of  gold  or  electrum,  ranging  in  size  from  less  than  an  inch 
to  about  two  inches  in  length  and  breadth,  which  resemble  in  a 
general  way  the  so-called  Argive-Corinthian  bronze  reliefs,  are 
to  be  regarded  as  Ionic,  or  Asiatic,  Greek  work  of  the  seventh 
and  sixth  centuries  B.C.  Although  these  small  plaques,  which 
were  fastened  together  to  form  girdles  or  necklaces,  were  intended 
for  personal  adornment,  the  fact  that  they  are  executed  in  re- 
pousse", like  the  designs  on  vessels  and  other  larger  objects,  makes 
it  natural  to  mention  them  here,  rather  than  in  the  category  of 
jewelry. 

Several  interesting  objects  of  gold,  found  in  1882  at  Vetters- 
felde,  in  Silesia,  are  evidently  Ionic  Greek  work,  executed  about 
the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  or  a  little  later,  for  some 
'  Scythian  customer,  though  how  they  came  from  south- 
ern Russia  to  Germany  is  not  known.  The  most  remarkable  piece 
is  a  fish  (Fig.  255),  0.41  m.  (i6\  in.)  in  length,  admirably  exe- 
cuted and  adorned  with  figures  of  a  Triton,  fishes,  a  bird,  and 
animals,  while  a  curious  spiral  ornament  proceeds  from  the  eye, 
and  the  tail  ends  in  two  ram's  heads.  Similar  ram's  heads  are 
found  on  Ionic  bronzes,  and  the  bird,  the  animals,  and  the  Triton 
are  familiar  in  Ionic  art.  That  such  figures  are  represented  on 
the  body  of  a  larger  animal  (here  the  fish)  is  doubtless  due  to 
local  Scythian  taste,  and  the  same  phenomenon  occurs  on  gold 
objects  found  in  the  Crimea.  The  fish  from  Vettersfelde  (now  in 
the  Museum  at  Berlin)  was  evidently  fastened  upon  some  object. 


METAL   WORK 


335 


probably  a  shield,  and  in  spite  of  the  Greek  quality  of  its  work- 
manship it  cannot  have  been  made  to  be  used  by  a  Greek. 


FIG.  255.  —  Goldfish.     (FurtwSngler,  Goldfund  von  Vettersfelde  ;  jjrd  Btrlin 
Winckelmannsprogramm,  PI.  I.) 

The  other  objects  found  at  Vettersfelde,  and  most  of  the  larger 
objects  of  gold  and  silver  found  in  southern  Russia,  which  are  now 
among  the  most  valuable  possessions  of  the  Museum  of  the  Her- 
mitage, at  St.  Petersburg,  were  also  made  for  Scythian  customers, 
and  probably  some  of  the  later  objects  from  southern  Southern 
Russia  are  Scythian  imitations  of  Greek  work.  A  gen-  Russia 
uine  Greek  work,  though  intended  for  use  by  a  Scythian,  is  a  finely 
executed  and  richly  adorned  sheath  for  a  short  sword,  which  was 
found  near  Kertch  (Fig.  256).  Here  the  old 
Ionic  designs  are  seen  as  they  appear  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  fourth  century  under  the 


FIG.  256.  —  Sword  sheath  from  Southern  Russia.     (Antiquitis  du  Bosphore 
Cimmerien,  PI.  26.) 

strong  influence  of  Attic  art.  Several  silver  vessels  of  about  the 
same  date  show  a  similar  survival  of  Ionic  motives  among  the  skil- 
ful artisans  who  supplied  the  Scythian  chiefs  and  nobles  with  their 


336  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

richest  adornments  and  furnishings.  Whether  these  Greek  ar- 
tisans were  settled  in  Scythia  or  lived  in  Greece,  probably  at 
Athens,  as  has  been  supposed,  and  adapted  their  work  to  the 
tastes  and  needs  of  their  Scythian  customers,  cannot  be  deter- 
mined with  certainty.  On  the  one  hand,  the  fact  that  Attic 
delicacy  of  taste  and  workmanship  is  seen  in  jewelry  and  other 
goldsmith's  work  found  as  far  apart  as  the  Crimea  and  Spain, 
leads  to  the  belief  that  Athenian  goldsmiths  exported  their  work 
to  those  distant  regions ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  distinctively 
Ionic  character  of  the  earlier  objects  found  in  the  Crimea  (and 
of  those  from  Vettersfelde),  with  the  survival  of  Ionic  motives  in 
work  of  the  fourth  century,  makes  the  existence  of  a  local  Scythian 
school  of  Greek  goldsmiths  and  silversmiths  seem  almost  certain. 
Probably,  as  Athens  imported  more  and  more  grain  in  the  fifth 
century,  her  exports  of  goldsmith's  work,  as  of  other  manufac- 
tures, increased  at  the  expense  of  her  competitors. 

That  the  working  of  the  precious  metals  was  by  no  means  neg- 
lected in  Greece  proper  in  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.C.  is 
Alexandrian  evident  from  the  great  fame  of  the  chryselephantine 
silverware  statues  of  Phidias  and  other  sculptors  of  the  period, 
and  the  existence  of  gold  and  silver  vessels  and  the  like  is  known 
from  literary  and  epigraphical  sources.  But  few  such  objects  are 
extant  which  can  be  proved  to  have  been  made  in  Greece  proper, 
or  which  can  (with  the  exception  of  those  from  the  Crimea)  be 
dated  earlier  than  Hellenistic  times.  In  those  times  the  use  of 
such  expensive  table  furnishings  must  have  been  far  from  un- 
common, especially  at  the  splendid  courts  of  the  successors  of 
Alexander,  and  the  city  of  Alexandria  was  the  chief  centre 
of  their  production.  This  is  proved,  not  by  the  discovery  of 
vessels  of  gold  or  silver  at  Alexandria,  or  even  in  Egypt,  though 
a  few  silver  vessels  have  been  found  in  Egypt,  which  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  second  century  B.C.,1  but  by  the  study,  with  the 
aid  of  ancient  literature,  Pompeian  wall-paintings,  and  other 

1  E.  Pernice,  Hellenistische  Silbergefasse  im  Antiquarium  der  koniglichen 
Museen.  ^Sles  Wintkelmannsprogramm.     Berlin,  1898. 


METAL   WORK  337 

accessory  evidence,  of  silverware  found  in  otner  places.  Roman 
writers  make  it  perfectly  clear  that  the  makers  of  the  silverware 
most  highly  prized  by  the  Romans  were  Greeks,  and  it  may  be 
confidently  assumed  that  elaborate  silverware  possessed  by  a 
wealthy  Roman  under  the  Republic  or  the  early  Empire  is 
actually  late  Greek  work,  or,  at  least,  copied  from  Greek  work. 
Such  silverware  has  been  found  at  various  times  and  places,  but 
the  most  important  discoveries  were  made  at  Berthouville,  in  the 
district  of  Bernay,  Normandy,  in  1830,  at  Hildesheim,  in  the 
province  of  Hanover,  in  1868,  and  at  Boscoreale,  near  Pompeii, 
in  1896.  The  vessels  and  other  objects  found  at  Bernay  are  now  in 
the  Cabinet  des  Medailles,  Paris,  those  found  at  Hildesheim  in  the 
Museum  at  Berlin,  and  those  from  Boscoreale  for  the  most  part 
in  the  Louvre.  The  various  other  objects  found  at  these  places, 
although  there  are  among  them  interesting  and  characteristic 
specimens  of  Hellenistic  work,  are,  on  the  whole,  less  important 
than  the  cups  and  dishes. 

The  Boscoreale  treasure  was  buried  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius 
in  79  A.D.,  and  can  therefore  contain  nothing  made  after  that 
date.  It  is  evident,  too,  that  some  of  the  vessels  were  wrought 
long  before  the  treasure  was  buried,  and  all  are  properly  classed  as 

works  of  Alexandrian  art,  modified,  perhaps,  in  some 

Boscoreale 
cases  to  suit  the  taste  of  Roman  Italy.     One  of  the 

most  interesting  of  these  works  is  a  shallow  silver  dish  (phtafe, 
patera),  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  remarkable  symbolic  repre- 
sentation of  the  city  of  Alexandria  (Fig.  257).  The  great  and 
wealthy  Egyptian  city  appears  as  a  woman  of  massive,  almost 
voluptuous,  form,  with  strong  features  and  an  expression  of  calm 
pride.  On  her  head  she  wears  the  spoils  of  an  elephant,  with 
projecting  tusks  and  raised  trunk.  The  earrings,  doubtless  fine 
examples  of  the  goldsmith's  art,  which  once  adorned  her  ears,  are 
now  lost.  In  her  left  hand,  resting  on  her  arm,  she  carries  a 
cornucopia  filled  with  fruits  and  covered  with  significant  reliefs. 
Above  its  open  end  a  crescent  is  fixed.  In  her  right  hand  she 
holds  a  sacred  serpent ;  fertility  and  wealth  are  perhaps  symbolized 

GREEK   ARCH. —  22 


333  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

by  the  female  panther  before  her ;  the  sistnim  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  field  refers  to  the  Egyptian  worship  of  Isis.  A  lion  is  seen 
by  the  right  shoulder  of  the  woman.  This  remarkable  piece  of 
symbolic  design  is  executed  with  consummate  skill.  The  whole 
is  an  insertion  (tp.ft\rjfM)  in  the  dish,  wrought  of  a  separate  piece 
of  silver  and  set  in,  as  are  the  reliefs  and  medallions  seen  in  other 


FlG.  257.  —  Silver  phiale  from  Boscoreale.     (Photograph.) 

dishes  of  this  shape.  The  silver  is  hammered  so  thin  that  it  had 
to  be  filled  with  lead  to  give  the  finished  work  the  necessary 
solidity.  Here  the  relief  is  so  high  as  to  be  in  parts  wrought 
almost  completely  in  the  round,  and  details  are  added  by  engrav- 
ing. The  whole  was  once  gilded,  except  the  nude  parts  of  the 
female  figure.  In  general,  gilding  was  much  used,  especially  in 
the  inserted  reliefs  and  medallions  (e/x/SXT/^ara).  In  the  silver- 
ware found  at  Boscoreale  and  at  Hildesheim,  nearly  all  possible 


METAL  WORK 


339 


technical  processes  —  casting,  turning,  hammering  (repousse1), 
soldering,  welding,  engraving,  niello,  and  gilding  —  are  employed 
with  the  greatest  skill. 

Another  dish,  of  about  the  same  shape  as  that  just  described, 
has  for  its  central  adornment  the  head  and  bust  of  a  beardless 
man,  with  short  hair  and  wrinkled  forehead.  This  is  evidently  a 
portrait,  and  seems  to  be  a  careful 
and  somewhat  realistic  portrait, 
though  the  person  represented 
has  not  been  identified.  A  sec- 
ond dish,  which  formed  a  pair 
with  this  one,  had  in  its  centre 
the  portrait  of  a  woman,  not  old, 
but  no  longer  young,  probably  the 
wife  of  the  man.  The  woman's 
head  is  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, though  the  dish  is  with  its 
mate  in  the  Louvre.  Two  other 
peculiarly  attractive  parts  of  the 
Boscoreale  treasure  are  a  pair  of 
jugs  or  pitchers,  on  each  of  which 
two  winged  Victories  are  sacrific- 
ing at  an  altar  of  Athena.  The 
figures  on  the  two  vessels  are  not 
identical,  but  similar  in  attitude 
and  action,  as  well  as  in  style  and 
execution  (Fig.  258).  The  easy, 
graceful  postures  of  the  Victories,  their  half-exposed  forms,  and 
their  waving  draperies  exhibit  the  qualities  familiar  to  us  from 
some  of  the  better  marble  reliefs  of  Hellenistic  times. 

Less  attractive,  but  no  less  interesting,  are  two  cups,  once  gilded 
and  evidently  forming  a  pair.  Under  a  garland  of  roses,  skeletons 
are  represented  in  the  attitudes  and  action  of  living  persons. 
Some  are  anonymous  and  are  accompanied  by  inscriptions,  such  as 
"pleasure,"  "envy,"  "enjoy  life;  for  the  morrow  is  uncertain." 


FlG.  258.  —  Silver  pitcher  from 
Boscoreale.     (Photograph.) 


340 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Other  skeletons  are  designated  by  the  names  of  Sophocles,  Mos- 
chion,  Zeno,  and  Epicurus  on  one  cup;  Menander,  Archilochus, 
Euripides,  and  Monimus  on  the  other.  Beside  Epicurus  is  the 
Inscription  TO  re'Aos  ybovT],  "  pleasure  is  the  highest  good.  "  The 
whole  preaches,  with  exquisite  art,  so  far  as  execution  is  concerned, 
the  doctrine,  which  was  so  popular  in  Hellenistic  and  Roman 
times,  "let  us  eat  and  drink;  for  to-morrow  we  die." 


FIG.  259.—  Silver  patera  from  Hildesheim.     (Pernice  and  Winter,  Der  Hildes- 
heimer  Fund,  PI.  I.) 


The  Hildesheim  treasure  is  not  dated  by  any  such  event  as 

the  eruption  which  buried  the  treasure  at  Boscoreale,  but  it  was 

probably  the  travelling  table  service  of  some  important 

Roman  of  the  second  century  after  Christ.     Most  of 

the  vessels  found  at  Hildesheim  are  finely  executed,  and  may 

be  assigned  with  great  probability  to  the  time  of  Augustus.     They 


METAL  WORK 


are  Alexandrian  in  shapes,  motives,  decoration,  and  technique^ 
except  that  on  some  of  them  garlands  and  naturalistic  leaves  are 
employed  in  a  way  apparently  peculiar  to  the  Augustan  period. 
A  few  may,  in  fact,  have  been  wrought  before  the  time  of  Augustus. 
A  small  number  of  less  well-executed  objects  are  probably  Gallic 
work  of  a  somewhat  later  date.  Evidently  the  whole  service  was 
not  originally  made  as  one  set,  and  therefore  the  date  of  one 
part  of  it  does  not  fix  the  date  of  another,  unless  it  be  in  the  case 
of  objects  evidently  intended  as  pairs.  Perhaps  the  most  interest- 
ing and  beautiful  of 
the  vessels  found  at 
Hildesheim  is  a  patera 
in  which  a  full-length 
figure  of  Athena  is 
inserted.  The  patera 
itself  is  more  richly 
ornamented  than  is 
usual,  and  the  figure 
of  Athena  is  a  most 
extraordinary  exam- 
ple of  dignified  de- 
sign in  a  compara- 
tively small  object, 
coupled  with  the 
greatest  technical 
skill  in  execution  (Fig.  259).  An  equally  brilliant,  though  less 
beautiful,  piece  of  work  is  a  second  patera,  the  central  medallion 
of  which  represents,  in  very  high  relief,  the  infant  Heracles  stran- 
gling the  serpents.  Two  other,  simpler,  paterae  have  medallions  on 
which  the  heads  of  Attis  and  Cybele,  respectively,  are  represented 
in  low  relief.  These  two,  and  the  patera  with  the  figure  of  Athena, 
may  be  the  earliest  of  the  vessels  from  Hildesheim.  Among  the 
others,  a  pair  of  cups  adorned  with  masks,  garlands,  and  various 
theatrical  and  Bacchic  personages  and  symbols  are  especially 
interesting  (Fig.  260).  Taken  together,  the  treasures  of  BOS- 


FIG.  260.  —  Silver  cup  from  Hildesheim.    (Pernice 
and  Winter,  Der  Hildesheimer  Fund,  PI.  14.) 


342  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

coreale  and  Hildesheim  serve  to  give  a  vivid  and  fairly  complete 
idea  of  the  taste  and  skill  displayed  by  the  Hellenistic  or,  more 
especially,  Alexandrian  silversmiths. 


JEWELRY 

In  modern  jewelry  the  stones  are,  as  a  rule,  the  main  thing, 
and  the  art  of  the  jeweller  is  exhibited  chiefly  in  setting  the  stones 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  their  beauty  to  the  best  advantage. 
In  Greek  jewelry,  on  the  other  hand,  the  form  of  the  completed 
object  is  the  main  thing ;  the  stone,  if  any  stone  is  employed,  is 
merely  an  accessory.  It  is  not  until  the  late  times  of  Hellenistic 
art,  the  time,  that  is,  of  the  Roman  Empire,  that  the  relation  is 
reversed,  and  the  stone  becomes  the  chief  thing.  At  the  same 
time,  ornaments  become  exaggerated  and  overloaded.  In  general, 
real  Hellenic  jewelry  is  more  restrained  in  design  and  decoration 
than  that  of  Hellenistic  times,  and  taste  deteriorates  as  time  goes 
on.  Etruscan  jewelry  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  from  real 
Greek  work,  which  it  resembles  in  the  general  character  of  its 
designs,  and  frequently  equals  in  fineness  of  execution.  In  its 
representation  of  the  human  form,  Etruscan  jewelry  is,  however, 
less  excellent,  and  in  general  it  is  less  artistic  than  Greek  work, 
because  its  ornamentation  is  less  restrained. 

Ancient  jewellers  employed  the  various  processes  of  casting, 
hammering,  welding,  and  soldering ;  filigree  work  was  popular  at 
Processes  almost  all  periods,  as  was  also  the  method  of  orna- 
dating,  etc.  menting  a  gold  background  by  soldering  upon  it  many 
minute  dots  of  gold  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  pattern  or  em- 
phasize outlines.  Complicated  gold  objects,  which  were  much 
more  popular  than  they  are  at  the  present  time,  were  made  of 
separate  small,  and  often  very  thin,  pieces  of  gold  soldered  to- 
gether. Genuine  enamel  work  was  apparently  unknown  to  the 
Greeks,  and  the  glass  pastes  employed  in  jewelry  were  not 
melted  in,  but  were  treated  exactly  as  if  they  were  real  stones. 
When  stones  were  used,  they  were  not  cut  in  facets,  as  in  modern 


METAL  WORK  343 

times,  in  order  to  increase  their  sparkling  brilliancy,  but  they  seem 
to  have  been  prized  less  for  that  quality  than  for  their  color,  their 
lustre  (when  simply  polished),  and  their  adaptability  for  use  as 
cameos  or  intaglios. 

*  It  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine  the  date  of  pieces  of  jew- 
elry or  the  place  of  their  manufacture,  for  they  are  small  and 
therefore  easily  transported  ;  accurate  accounts  of  their  discovery 
are  often  wanting,  and,  since  such  small  objects  of  value  are  in  all 
ages  frequently  treated  as  heirlooms  and  handed  down  from  gener- 
ation to  generation,  it  is  always  possible  that  jewelry  may  be 
much  earlier  than  any  coins  or  other  dated  objects  with  which  it 
may  be  found.  Moreover,  some  forms  were  in  use  during  long 
periods.  The  general  lines  of  development  are,  however,  suffi- 
ciently clear,  even  though  many  details  are  as  yet  little  understood. 

The  chief  objects  included  under  the  head  of  jewelry  are  wreaths 
or  diadems,  hairpins,  necklaces,  earrings,  pendants,  brooches,  brace- 
lets, and  rings.  All  of  these  are  known  in  many  examples,  and  it 
is  obvious,  almost  at  first  sight,  that  the  course  of  Greek  art  as  seen 
in  jewelry  is  parallel  to  its  course  in  other  branches.  The 
greatest  treasures  of  Greek  jewelry  have  been  found  in  southern 
Russia  (the  Crimea),  but  many  important  discoveries  of  treasure 
have  been  made  in  other  places,  and  isolated  objects  have  been 
found  at  almost  all  points  of  the  ancient  world.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  Greek  jewelry  extant  is  Hellenistic,  or  later. 

Ornaments  for  the  head  may  be  garlands,  diadems,  hairpins,  or 
spirals,  the  last  mentioned  being  intended  to  twine  about  the  locks 
of  hair  to  keep  them  in  place.  Garlands  consist  of  Diadems 
thin  gold,  cut  and  pressed  into  the  form  of  leaves  and  and  garlands 
fastened  to  a  curved  stem  either  by  soldering,  by  means  of  a  fine 
wire  (which  serves  as  the  stem  of  the  leaf),  or  occasionally  by  a 
rivet.  Such  garlands,  when  made  merely  to  be  buried  with  the 
dead,  are  very  light  and  usually  of  rather  careless  workmanship. 
When  made  to  be  worn  by  the  living,  they  are  likely  to  be  more 
carefully  made  and  also  somewhat  heavier,  though  much  Greek 
jewelry,  whether  intended  for  actual  use  or  not,  is  made  of 


344  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

thinner  gold  than  would  be  used  in  modern  times.  Such  garlands 
as  have  been  mentioned  were  evidently  in  use  from  early  times 
until  long  after  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Diadems 
were,  like  garlands,  made  of  thin  gold,  and  most  of  those  known 
to  us  were  probably  made  for  sepulchral  use.  In  these  the  work* 
manship  is  usually  very  careless,  but  the  designs,  pressed,  or,  in 
some  cases,  hamnrered  out  in  repouss£,  exhibit  the  styles  of  all  the 
centuries  from  Mycenaean  to  late  Roman  times.  The  spiral  lock 
holders  are  little  more  than  pieces  of  gold  wire,  twisted  into  the 
required  spiral  form.  Sometimes  they  have  small  ornaments  at 
the  ends,  and  occasionally  they  are  further  enriched  with  dots  of 
gold  or  with  slight  chasing.  Such  spirals  were  used  not  only  to 
hold  locks  of  hair  in  place,  but  also  as  earrings,  in  which  case  they 
were  passed  through  the  ear,  and  as  finger  rings.  Specimens  have 
been  found  made  of  gold,  silver,  and  bronze. 

Hairpins  were  in  use  throughout  antiquity.  They  were  not 
double  pins,  like  modern  hairpins,  but  single,  long  pins  with,  as  a 
rule,  large  and  ornamental  heads.  The  degree  and 
kind  of  ornamentation  vary  greatly,  not  only  with  the 
times,  but  with  the  individual  taste  and  wealth  of  the  ancient  pur- 
chaser. Round  heads,  adorned  with  concentric  rings  or  other  sim- 
ple patterns,  occur  at  different  times.  In  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
and  later,  the  heads  of  pins  not  infrequently  take  the  form  of 
small  statuettes.  The  human  head  is  also  a  well-known  design.  It 
is  comparatively  easy  to  assign  a  date  to  pins  of  this  sort,  as  the 
relation  between  minute  gold  or  silver  statuettes  and  sculpture  of 
larger  size  is  close,  but  some  of  the  pins  ornamented  with  linear 
designs  in  filigree  or  granulated  work  are  less  easy  to  date,  though 
the  student  is  often  aided  by  the  presence  of  some  well-marked 
ornamental  form  known  to  him  in  architecture  or  some  other 
branch  of  art.  Some  of  the  Greek  hairpins  are  very  elaborate, 
few  equalling  in  this  respect  a  remarkable  work  in  the  Museum  at 
Boston  (Fig.  261),  the  head  of  which  is  a  most  curious  structure, 
wrought  with  marvellous  delicacy.  Above  a  round  knob  is  a 
capital  with  Ionic  volutes,  upon  which  stands  a  combination  of 


METAL   WORK 


345 


Necklaces 


rampant  winged  lions,  conventionalized  plant  forms,  and  natural- 
istic bees,  producing  a  singularly  attractive  and  admirable  whole. 
This  little  masterpiece,  which  may  be  ascribed  to  the  fourth,  or 
possibly  even  to  the  fifth,  century  B.C.,  exemplifies  the  chief  quali- 
ties of  Greek  jewelry,  exquisite  work- 
manship, beautiful  form,  and  refined 
imagination.  Although  it  is  said  to  have 
been  found  in  the  Peloponnesus,  it  is 
probably  Attic  work. 

Among  the  earliest  Greek  necklaces 
are  those  that  consist  of  a  series  of  small 

rectangular  plaques  adorned 
with  rdiefs>     These  plaques 

are  thin,  and  the  reliefs,  wrought  by  the 
repousse1  process,  do  not  differ  in  any 
essential  features  from  the  similar  reliefs 
of  contemporary  bronzes.  At  all  periods 
necklaces  were  frequently  formed  of 
beads  strung  together,  and  the  beads 
varied  greatly  in  form.  Sometimes  they 
are  small  globes  with  little  or  no  orna- 
ment, sometimes  they  have  the  form  of 
human  or  animal  heads,  or  even  of  entire  animals,  sometimes  they 
represent  shells  or  resemble  small  amphorae  or  other  vases,  or  again 
they  are  round  medallions,  usually  adorned  with  heads  in  relief. 
The  clasps  have  various  forms,  from  spirals  to  lions'  heads.  Some 
necklaces  consist  of  fine  chains,  usually  with  small  beads  of  colored 
stone  or  glass  between  the  links.  Others  are  made  of  fine  gold 
threads  twisted  into  the  form  of  a  rope  or  braided  or  woven  into  a 
flat  strap.  All  these  different  forms  of  necklace  may  be  made 
richer  and  more  striking  by  the  addition  of  pendants,  sometimes 
few  and  large,  sometimes  small  and  numerous.  The  date  of  neck- 
laces can  be  determined  only  in  part  by  their  form,  for  strings  of 
beads  were  used  in  all  periods,  but  woven  and  twisted  ropes  or 
bands  of  fine  threads  do  not  occur  until  the  fifth  century  ;  rich  and 


FIG.  261.  — Gold  pin.    Bos- 
ton.    (Photograph.) 


346  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

striking  pendants  belong  chiefly  to  the  fourth  century  and  later, 
and  the  use  of  colored  stones  and  glass  increases  in  Hellenistic  and 
Roman  times.  The  earliest  necklaces  exhibit  the  awkwardness  of 
archaic  art,  and  under  the  Romans  the  goldsmiths  and  jewelers, 
like  the  sculptors,  produced  work  that  was  coarse  and  showy  rather 
than  delicate  or  refined.  In  the  fifth  century  B.C.  the  art  of  the 
goldsmith  was  perfected,  both  as  regards  technical  processes  and 
beauty  of  design,  and  throughout  the  fourth  century  it  remained 
at  the  height  of  its  perfection,  though  even  in  the  fourth  century 


FIG.  262. —  Necklace  and  earrings.     New  York.      (Photograph.) 

the  restraint  which  gives  to  Hellenic  art  its  peculiar  charm  begins 
to  yield  to  the  desire  for  effect.  The  changes  in  the  quality  of 
Greek  art  are  almost  as  easily  traced  in  necklaces  as  in  any  other 
class  of  monuments,  for  the  beads  which  form  the  necklaces  them- 
selves, the  clasps  that  fasten  them,  and  the  pendants  that  hang 
from  them  are  more  often  than  not  carefully  wrought  miniature 
reliefs  or  sculptures  in  the  round,  and  palmettes  and  other  signifi- 
cant ornaments  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  A  fine  example  of  a 
Greek  necklace  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York 
(Fig.  262).  Although  its  exact  date  may  not  be  known  with  cer- 
tainty, it  is  to  be  assigned  to  the  fourth  century. 


METAL  WORK  347 

Some  marble  statues  of  the  sixth  century  have  earrings  carved 
in  marble,  which  have  the  form  of  disks  or  rosettes  worn  close  to 
the  lobe  of  the  ear,  not  hanging  down  from  it.  Metal 
earrings  were  fixed  in  the  ears  of  other  statues,  but 
the  form  of  these  can  no  longer  be  determined.  It  may  have 
been  more  elaborate  than  that  of  the  earrings  carved  in  marble. 
Earrings  with  pendants  were  certainly  known  to  the  Greeks  at  this 
period,  for  they  were  worn  much  earlier  by  the  Egyptians  and  also 
apparently  by  the  Phoenicians,  and,  moreover,  on  the  Francois  vase 
(Fig.  383)  and  on  several  black-figured  vases,  earrings  with  pendants 
are  represented  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  if  we  can  judge  by  the  earrings 
seen  in  vase-paintings,  the  relatively  simple  rosette  form  was  the 
favorite,  at  Athens  at  least,  until  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 
After  this  time  pendants  grow  in  favor,  and  tend  to  increase  in  size 
and  magnificence.  Ancient  earrings  frequently  have  the  form  of 
a  human  or  animal  head,  and  the  ring  is  then  so  made  that  the 
head  is  worn  close  to  the  lobe  of  the  ear.  This  style  seems  to 
have  originated  as  early  as  the  fifth  century  and  to  have  continued 
in  vogue  throughout  antiquity,  though  earrings  with  heads  as  pen- 
dants were  also  common.  Indeed,  the  pendants  of  ancient  earrings 
have  almost  all  conceivable  forms. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  earrings  in  existence,  in  fact,  one 
of  the  most  charming  extant  specimens  of  ancient  goldsmith's 
work,  consists  of  an  elongated  rosette,  from  which  hangs  a  pendant 
that  represents  a  winged  Victory  standing  in  a  chariot  and  driving 
her  pair  of  spirited  horses  up  toward  Olympus  (Fig.  263).1  The 
•delicacy  of  the  work  is  extraordinary.  The  wheels  turn  upon  their 
axles ;  the  feathers  of  the  wings,  the  hair  of  the  Victory,  and  that 
of  the  horses'  manes  and  tails  are  as  carefully  represented  as  in 
statues  of  life  size.  So  fine  is  the  work  that  its  beauty  is  enhanced, 
not  diminished,  when  it  is  seen  through  a  magnifying  glass.  Di- 

1  Said  to  have  been  found  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  is  now  in  the  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston,  which  acquired  it  at  the  sale  of  the  Tyszkiewicz 
collection.  Froehner,  in  his  catalogue  of  that  collection,  ascribes  it,  without 
hesitation,  to  the  time  of  Phidias. 


348 


FlG.  263.  —  Earring  in  Boston.    Slightly 
enlarged.     (Photograph.) 


minutive  as  is  this  admira- 
ble example  of  miniature 
sculpture,  it  is  still  too 
large  and  heavy  to  have 
been  worn  with  comfort 
by  a  living  woman.  The 
suggestion  that  it  once 
adorned  the  statue  of  some 
goddess  has  therefore  much 
in  its  favor.  The  style  is 
that  of  Attic  sculpture  of 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century,  though  it  is  possi- 
ble that  the  earring  itself 
may  have  been  made  a 
little  later. 


Brooches 


The  brooches  worn  by  the  Greeks  often  had  the  form  of  safety 
pins  (fibulae ;  see  p.  324),  not  disguised  except  in  so  far  as  they 
were  sometimes  of  great  size  and  the  arch  and  the 
shield  of  the  point  were  adorned  with  designs  in  the 
taste  of  the  period.  But  the  general  development  of  jewelry 
led  to  change  in  the  form  as  well  as  the  decoration  of  brooches. 
The  fibula  form,  however,  continued  in  use  alongside  of  the  flat 
brooch,  and  in  Hellenistic  times  both  forms  were  often  enriched 
with  stones.  The  shapes  of  brooches  were  various,  the  most 
usual  being  perhaps  that  of  a  circular  or  oval  medallion.  Some- 
times, too,  pendants  of  various  forms  were  attached  to  brooches, 
as  to  necklaces  and  earrings. 

A  fine  brooch  of  the  fourth  century,  resembling  in  shape  a  pedi- 
ment surmounted  by  an  acroterium  and  ending  at  the  corners  in 
the  fore  parts  of  winged  horses,  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in 
New  York  (Fig.  264).  The  horses  are  modelled  in  the  round,  and 
rest  upon  triangular  Ionic  capitals  (one  is  missing).  The  elabo- 
rate and  beautiful  designs  of  the  acroterium  and  the  pediment, 
with  its  cornices,  are  wrought  in  filigree  thread  soldered  to  a  thin 


METAL  WORK  349 


FIG.  264. —  Brooch  in  New  York.     Slightly  enlarged.     (Photograph.) 

plate  of  gold.  To  the  back  of  this  a  second  thin  plate  is  fastened, 
upon  which  are  the  remains  of  the  spring  and  clasp  of  the  brooch. 
The  whole  is  3^  in.  (0.078  m.)  in  length. 

Pendants  have  been  mentioned  already  in  connection  with 
necklaces,  earrings,  and  brooches.  They  were  also,  apparently, 

sometimes  fastened  on  garments,  and  thus  worn  on 

Pendants 
the  breast,  and  sometimes  they  seem  to  have  hung 

down  from  the  hair  over  the  temples.  The  form  of  the  pendant 
was  little  influenced  by  the  special  purpose  for  which  it  was  in- 
tended, except  that  in  general  pendants  intended  as  ornaments 
for  the -breast  or  the  temples  were  likely  to  be  flat,  while  those 
that  hung  from  earrings,  necklaces,  or  brooches  might  take  vari- 
ous forms,  as  elongated  drops,  rosettes,  medallions,  human  or  ani- 
mal heads,  tiny  statuettes,  which  are  often  winged,  or  combina- 
tions of  these  forms  with  each  other  and  with  chains,  colored 
stones,  cameos,  or  intaglios.  Whether  the  two  gold  medallions 
from  Kertch,1  on  which  the  head  of  Athena  Parthenos  is  represented 

1  Now  in  the  Hermitage.  The  two  medallions  differ  in  some  details,  the 
chief  difference  being  that  in  one  the  head  is  turned  slightly  to  the  right,  in 
the  other  to  the  left.  Some  blue  enamel  is  found  on  the  leaves  of  the  border 
of  the  medallions,  on  some  of  the  flowers,  and  on  some  details  of  the  pendants 
that  hang  from  the  medallions. 


350 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


(Fig.  265),  were  intended  as  pendants  for  a  necklace,  or  were,  as 
is  more  probable,  to  be  attached  to  the  clothing  on  the  breast,  is 
uncertain.  They  may  even  have  been  worn  as  pendants  from 
earrings,  though  their  size  (about  2%  in.,  0.073  m.,  in  diameter) 
renders  this  improbable.  These  medallions,  with  the  rich  orna- 
ments pendent  from  them,  are  excellent  examples  of  Greek  gold- 

smith's work  of  the  end  of  the  fifth, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth,  cen- 
tury, while  the  fact  that  they  copy 
with  such  apparent  accuracy  the  de- 
tails of  the  great  statue  in  the  Par- 
thenon makes  it  almost  certain  that 
they  were  made  at  Athens. 

Greek  rings  may  be  divided  into 
four  chief  types  :  (i)  The  ring  con- 
sists of  a  piece  of  gold 
curved  like  a  horseshoe, 
a  stone,  usually  a  scarab  or  scara- 
boid,  pierced  lengthwise,  and  a  gold 
wire,  which  is  run  through  the  stone 
and  then  twisted  and  fastened  about 
the  ends  of  the  curved  piece  of  gold. 
Sometimes  the  wire  is  passed  through 
holes  in  the  curved  piece  of  gold. 
(2)  The  horseshoe  (or  stirrup)  shape 
is  preserved,  but  the  ring  is  made 
(3)  The  third  type 
merien.  Pi.  19.)  stjH  preserves  something  of  the  stir- 

rup shape,  but  less  than  the  second.  The  seal  stone  is  not 
pierced,  and  is  set  in  the  gold.  (4)  The  fourth  type  is  a  ring  like 
those  of  modern  times,  the  bezel,  often  or  usually  set  with  a  seal 
or  cameo,  forming  an  integral  part  of  it.  Other  less  important 
types,  common  in  Hellenistic  times,  are  :  a  spiral  coil,  usually  in 
the  form  of  a  serpent  ;  a  piece  of  gold  so  curved  as  to  encircle 
the  finger,  but  not  joined  at  the  ends,  which  are  usually  orna- 


FIG.  265.  —  Medallion  from  Kertch. 

Antiuitts  du   Bospkore  dm-    all  of  one  piece. 


METAL   WORK 


mented  with  heads ;  and  a  ring  made  in  imitation  of  a  knotted 
cord  or  band,  in  which  the  knot  takes  the  place  of  the  bezel. 
Rings  of  these  and  similar  types  are  often  beautifully  wrought. 
Some  special  forms  of  rings  have  been  mentioned  in  the  chapter 
on  engraved  gems. 

The  four  chief  types  follow  each  other  in  chronological  order, 
but  the  earlier  among  them  evidently  continued  in  use  after  the 
later  types  were  introduced.  Moreover,  all  four  types  were  em- 
ployed by  the  Egyptians.  The  type  of  a  ring  does  not  therefore 
always  suffice  to  determine  its  date,  though  rings  of  the  first  type 
are  not  likely  to  be  later  than  the  fifth  century,  nor  those  of  the 
fourth  type  earlier  than  the  fourth  century  B.C.  The  most  impor- 
tant decoration  of  rings  was  the  engraving  of  the  bezel,  which  was 
sometimes  of  metal,  but  was  usually  set  with  a  stone  cut  as  an 
intaglio  or,  in  Hellenistic  and  later  times,  as  a  cameo.  This  kind 
of  work  is  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  engraved  gems. 
In  Hellenic  times,  rings 
were  usually  rather  light 
and  simple  plain  bands  or 
twisted  cords.  Later  they 
became  heavier  and  were 
sometimes  elaborately 
chased. 

In    form    bracelets    are 
like  either  small  necklaces, 

though  without 

pendants,  or 
large  rings,  though  without 
bezels.  Following  the  anal- 
ogy of  necklaces  they  were  made  of  links,  small  plaques  joined 
by  links,  beads  of  gold  and  colored  stones,  rope  twists,  braids, 
and  bands ;  or  they  consisted,  like  rings,  of  gold  hoops,  spirals 
like  coiled  serpents,  or  hoops  not  joined  at  the  ends.  A  fine  pair 
of  bracelets  from  Kertch  (Fig.  266)  has  this  last  form,  though  here 


Bracelets 


FlG.  266.  —  Bracelet  from  Kertch.    {Antiqui- 
tes  du  Bosphore  Cimmerien,  PI.  13.) 


352  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  hoop  is  actually  completed  by  the  knot  held  in  the  paws  of 
the  sphinxes  that  form  the  chief  decoration.  The  historical  devel- 
opment of  form  and  decoration  of  bracelets  seems  to  be  exactly 
parallel  to  that  of  rings  and  necklaces. 

The  Greeks  and  the  peoples  with  whom  they  traded  adorned 
their  garments  with  small  pieces  of  thin  gold  or  electrum  cut  into 
various  shapes  and  decorated  with  various  designs  executed  for  the 
most  part  in  repouss£.  Small  thin  sheets  of  gold  or  electrum 
Other  er  ^ave  a^so  been  f°und,  which  seem  to  have  been 
sonal  orna-  pressed  upon  a  carved  background  of  wood  or  some 
ments  other  hard  material  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the 

whole  object  seem  to  be  of  gold.  Such  ornaments  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  elaborate  buttons  occasionally  used  by  ladies  in 
modern  times.  The  Greek  ornaments  in  question  are  diminutive 
reliefs,  which  are  interesting  chiefly  as  additional  evidence  of  the 
close  connection  between  the  art  of  the  goldsmith  and  the  other 
arts.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  discuss  them  here  in  detail. 


CHAPTER  VI 
COINS 

THE  study  of  Greek  coins  is  of  especial  importance  and  may  al- 
most be  regarded  as  a  distinct  science.  More  than  any  other  branch 
of  archaeology  it  demands  wide  and  accurate  knowledge  importance 
of  ancient  history  and  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  of  coins 
it  serves  to -increase  the  literary  and  historical  knowledge  of  those 
who  devote  themselves  to  it.  Coins,  showing  as  they  do  the  changes 
in  the  political,  commercial,  and  religious  affiliations  of  various 
cities,  often  serve  to  correct  or  confirm  the  statements  of  the  ancient 
historians,  and  shed  many  rays  of  light  upon  the  dark  places  of 
Greek  religion  and  mythology.  Regarded  as  works  of  art,  they 
have  a  great  advantage  over  most  of  the  extant  works  of  Greek 
sculpture,  because  they  are  originals,  not  copies.  Even  now,  after 
the  many  important  discoveries  of  the  past  few  decades,  Greek  sculp- 
ture is  known  to  us  in  great  measure  through  Roman  copies ;  but 
Greek  coins  have  been  preserved  in  a  continuous  series  from  the 
eighth  century  B.C.  until  Greek  art  loses  itself  in  the  barbarism  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Since  they  exist  in  great  numbers,  and  many 
of  them  are  almost  as  fresh  as  when  they  came  from  the  mint, 
they  form  an  exceptionally  instructive  series  of  works  of  minor 
Greek  art.  Moreover,  the  fact  that  the  coins  can  almost  always  be 
assigned  to  definite  dates  and  places  adds  greatly  to  their  value. 
As  works  of  art,  they  are  to  be  classed  as  small  reliefs,  and  a  care- 
ful and  intelligent  study  of  them  makes  the  student  acquainted 
with  the  whole  course  of  Greek  sculpture  in  miniature.  Further- 
more, later  coins  reproduce  some  of  the  most  important  works  of 
monumental  art.  For  many  reasons,  then,  the  study  of  Greek 
coins  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  archaeologist 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  23  353 


354  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

The  history  of  the  development  of  Greek  coin  standards  is  a  dif- 
ficult study,  which  belongs  rather  to  the  metrologist  than  to  the 
student  of  ancient  art,  but  even  the  student  of  art  should  know 
enough  about  the  metals,  the  standards,  and  the  methods  employed 
in  ancient  mints  to  aid  him  in  assigning  dates  and  places  to  coins. 
A  few  pages  must  therefore  be  devoted  to  these  and  kindred  mat- 
ters before  turning  to  the  artistic  development  of  the  coins  them- 
selves. 

The  metals  used  by  the  Greeks  for  their  coins  are  gold  (A/),  silver 
(XR),  copper  or  bronze  (£1),  and  electrum  (EL).    The  last  is  an  al- 
loy (in  most  cases,  at  least,  natural)  of  gold  and  silver. 
Metals  used     >-./-,  111  i   • 

Of  these  metals  gold  was  used  m  a  very  pure  state, 

being  sometimes  almost  absolutely  unalloyed.  The  Persian  darics 
contain  only  three  per  cent  of  alloy,  and  other  gold  coins  of  the 
ancients  are  equally  pure.  Silver  also  was  used  with  much  less 
alloy  than  is  contained  in  modern  coins.  So  the  Athenian  tetra- 
drachmsof  the  best  period  are  about  .985  fine,  those  of  the  period 
after  Alexander  about  .950  fine,  Aeginetan  and  Corinthian  staters 
about  .961  fine,  and  Alexander's  silver  pieces  about  .967  fine. 
Electrum,  sometimes  called  white  gold  (^pvo-os  XCUKOS)  was 
regarded  as  a  distinct  metal.  The  proportions  of  the  gold  and  sil- 
ver contained  in  it  vary  greatly.  Sometimes  it  contains  95  per 
cent  of  gold  and  again  not  more  than  5  per  cent ;  but  the  most 
usual  proportions  vary  between  52.25  per  cent  of  gold  to  47.75 
per  cent  of  silver  and  27  per  cent  of  gold  to  73  per  cent  of  silver. 
This  metal  was  used  especially  in  regions  where  gold  alloyed  with 
silver  was  a  natural  product,  as  in  Lydia  and  Lesbos,  at  Cyzicus, 
and  at  Phocaea.  Copper  or  bronze  was  the  metal  most  widely  em- 
ployed. The  ancients  called  copper  and  its  various  alloys  (bronze, 
brass,  etc.)  made  with  tin,  zinc,  and  other  metals  indifferently  by 
the  same  name  (jfaXxos,  aes).  In  Greek  coins  the  copper  is  usually 
mixed  with  a  little  tin  or  zinc.  In  early  times,  iron  bars  are  said 
to  have  been  used  as  money,  and  iron  money  continued  in  use  at 
Sparta  after  it  was  generally  superseded  by  gold,  silver,  and  cop- 
per. A  few  iron  coins  have  been  found  belonging  to  Heraea  and 


COINS  355 

Tegea,  in  Arcadia,  and  iron  coinage  is  mentioned  by  ancient 
authors.  It  cannot,  however,  have  been  usual,  nor  can  coins 
of  tin,  lead,  leather,  or  other  materials  have  been  of  any  gen- 
eral importance.  We  have  to  consider  only  the  coins  of  gold, 
electrum,  silver,  and  copper,  and  since  copper  coins  have  for  the 
most  part  suffered  so  much  from  oxidation  that  their  types  are 
obscured,  our  attention  will  be  directed  chiefly  to  the  coins  of  the 
precious  metals,  among  which  the  silver  coins  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous. 

The  process  of  manufacture  was  simple.  A  blank  (flan)  of  metal 
of  the  desired  weight  was  prepared  by  casting,  and  was  placed  upon 
a  die,  in  which  the  type  or  design  of  the  obverse  (face  process  of 
or  "head")  of  the  coin  had  been  engraved.  This  die  coining 
was  set  in,  or  placed  upon,  an  anvil.  A  punch,  roughened  to  pre- 
vent it  from  slipping,  was  then  held  upon  the  reverse  (back,  "tail") 
of  the  blank  and  struck  with  a  hammer  until  the  metal  of  the  coin 
was  forced  into  the  engraved  die.  In  some  cases  the  edge  of  the 
blank  was  cut  with  shears  or  some  other  sharp  instrument,  because 
the  weight  obtained  by  casting  was  not  exact.  The  coin  was  struck 
while  the  metal  was  red  hot  and  therefore  comparatively  soft.  In 
this  way  the  number  and  violence  of  the  necessary  blows  was  re- 
duced and  the  wear  of  the  die  correspondingly  diminished.  Since 
no  ancient  Greek  dies  are  preserved,  the  material  of  which  they 
were  made  is  not  known  with  absolute  certainty.  In  early  times 
it  was  doubtless  some  kind  of  bronze,  but  in  the  best  days  of 
Greek  coinage  it  may  well  have  been  steel,  which  would  then  have 
been  cut  by  the  methods  of  the  gem  engraver,  with  a  wheel  and 
emery  sand.  In  fact,  some  coins  show  clearly  the  round  holes 
made  by  this  process. 

The  earliest  coins  have  no  type  (design)  on  the  obverse  further 
than  mere  striations,  and  the  reverse  shows  a  rough  oblong  de- 
pression between  two  square  depressions.  These  are  shapes  and 
the  marks  left  by  the  end  of  the  punch  which  received  designs 
the  blows  of  the  hammer  (Fig.  267).  The  shape  of  these  coins 
is  oval  or  lenticular,  and  they  are  much  thicker  than  the  coins  of 


•: 


356  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

later  times.  As  time  went  on  the  circular  form  was  adopted,  and 
the  coins  were  made  thinner  than  at  first,  but  Greek  coins  were 
always  thicker  than  our  modern  coins,  and  the  circular  form  was 
never  exact,  as  it  is  in  the  products  of  modern  mints,  for  the 

Greeks  did  not  drop  the  blank 
into  a  circular  frame  or  collar, 
but  left  it  free  to  spread.  The 
design  of  the  obverse  is  from 
a  very  early  period  a  real  work 

of  art,  while  the  mark  of  the 
FIG.  267.  -Early  Lydian  coin.     (Coins        Dunch  „„  the  reverse  remains 
of  the  Ancients, P\.  I,  i.) 

a  mere  incuse  square,  or  (as  in 

the  Lydian  coin,  Fig.  267)  an  incuse  oblong  between  two  squares, 
or  an  incuse  square  with  various  divisions.  Soon,  however,  the 
punch  becomes  virtually  an  upper  die  for  the  reverse,  small  designs 
are  inserted  in  the  incuse  square,  then  the  incuse  square  is  given 
up,  and  in  the  coins  of  the  best  period  the  reverse  has  a  type 
little,  if  at  all,  less  beautiful  than  that  of  the  obverse. 

Since  the  purpose  of  coinage  is  to  facilitate  commerce,  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  weights  or  standards  of  coins  be  fixed  and  be 
known  by  those  who  are  to  use  them.  The  standards 
of  Greek  coins  are  probably  all  derived  from  Babylonia, 
but  in  passing  from  Babylonia  to  Greece  the  weights  underwent 
various  changes.  As  a  result  we  find  a  variety  of  standards  in  use 
in  Greece  and  the  neighboring  countries.  For  the  coinage  of  silver, 
which  was  the  most  important,  the  chief  standards  employed  in 
Greece  proper  were  the  Aeginetan,  the  stater  of  which  weighed 
12.60-11.90  grammes,  and  the  Euboic  (Attic,  Corinthian),  the 
stater  of  which  weighed  8.75-8.15  grammes.  In  the  Pangaean 
district  of  Thrace  a  stater  weighing  about  10  grammes  was  in  use  ; 
the  Macedonian  standard  gives  a  weight  of  14.50  grammes,  and 
the  staters  of  some  of  the  Asiatic  cities  and  their  colonies  were 
struck  according  to  the  Phoenician  standard,  and  weigh  14.90  to 
14.25  grammes  or  a  little  less.  Rhodes  and  Chios  had  local 
standards.  Other  cities  employed  the  Persian  standard  (stater 


COINS  357 

11.50  grammes).  For  the  coinage  of  gold,  a  stater  of  8.4 
grammes  was  almost  universally  used.  In  Etruria,  as  well  as  in 
some  cities  of  Magna  Graecia  and  Sicily,  native  standards  were 
employed,  and  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  Roman  stand- 
ard spread  throughout  the  civilized  world.  The  weights  of  many 
coins  are  now  no  longer  exact,  on  account  of  wear,  which  has  di- 
minished them,  or  oxidation,  which  has  increased  them.  There  was, 
moreover,  a  general  tendency  to  diminish  the  weight  of  coins  as 
time  went  on.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine 
the  standards  of  the  various  coins.  This  is  a  matter  of  more  im- 
portance than  appears  at  first  sight,  because  the  standard  of  coin- 
age often  throws  light  upon  the  history  of  the  Greek  cities  and  the 
course  of  ancient  trade,  since  those  cities  which  were  closely  con- 
nected by  commerce  would  naturally  adopt  the  same  standard  of 
coinage  to  facilitate  exchange.  So  the  earliest  coins  of  Cumae, 
Rhegium,  Naxus,  Zancle,  and  Himera  (all  colonies  of  Chalcis) 
follow  the  Aeginetan,  not  the  Euboean,  standard,  and  Corcyra,  a 
colony  of  Corinth,  adopted  the  same  standard,  though  in  a  reduced 
form.  At  a  later  period  the  Attic  standard  became  more  and 
more  generally  adopted  as  the  power  and  commercial  importance 
of  Athens  increased,  and  after  its  adoption  by  Alexander  the  Great 
it  was  the  chief  standard  of  the  Greek  world,  though  even  then  the 
Aeginetan  standard  continued  in  use  in  some  places. 

The  divisional  systems  adopted  by  the  Greeks  and  the  names 
given  to  the  coins  of  each  denomination  are  very  various.  In 
Athens  the  unit  of  value  was  the  drachma  (^  the  Attic- 
Euboean-Corinthian  stater).  The  drachma  was  di- 
vided into  6  obols.  Coins  were  struck  of  the  following  denomina- 
tions :  10,  4,  and  2  drachmas,  i  drachma,  5,  4,  3,  2,  i\  obols, 
i  obol,  f ,  ^,  |,  and  ^  obol,  and  a  bronze  coin,  the  hemitetartemo- 
rion,  or  ^oA/coSs,  which  was  worth  only  ^  obol.  At  Corinth,  and 
places  which  derived  their  coinage  system  from  Corinth,  the  stater, 
which  was  equal  to  two  drachmas  in  Attica,  was  divided  into  three 
drachmas,  two  of  which  would  thus  be  practically  equivalent  to  one 
Aeginetan  drachma.  In  some  of  the  Asiatic  currencies  also  the 


358  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

stater  was  divided  into  thirds  and  sixths,  as  in  the  important  elec- 
trum  currencies  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.C.  at  Cyzicus,  Pho- 
caea,  and  Lesbos.  Besides  the  multiples  of  the  drachma  employed 
in  the  currency  of  Athens,  any  others  could  be  used  that  conven- 
ience or  love  of  display  might  suggest.  So  pieces  of  3,  5,  6,  8, 10, 
and  12  drachmas  are  found  at  various  times  and  places,  but  the 
larger  denominations  seem  to  have  been  seldom  struck  except  on 
special  occasions  or  by  rulers  or  peoples  who  delighted  in  ostenta- 
tion. So  some  of  the  Ptolemies  struck  gold  octodrachms,  some  of 
the  Thracian  tribes  struck  silver  octodrachms,  and  among  the  coins 
of  Sicily  the  Syracusan  silver  decadrachms  are  justly  famous.  As 
a  rule,  the  denomination  of  Greek  coins  is  indicated  solely  by 
the  weight.  The  addition  of  numerals  or  the  name  of  the  coin 
(Spax/A?;  or  the  like)  is  rare,  except  in  the  West  or  in  late  times. 
In  a  few  cases  'the  denomination  is  indicated  by  the  type.  So 
in  a  series  of  coins  issued  at  Syracuse  under  Gelo  the  type  of  the 
reverse  shows  the  denomination  as  follows :  the  tetradrachm 
(four  drachmas)  has  a  quadriga,  the  didrachm  a  horseman  lead- 
ing a  second  horse,  the  drachma  a  horseman,  and  the  obol  a  wheel. 
The  unit  of  Greek  weights  and  currency  was  the  stater  or, 
to  use  the  oriental  term,  the  shekel.  In  speaking  of  large  sums 
the  words  "mina"  and  "talent"  were  used,  but  the  mina  and  talent 
were  weights,  not  coins.  The  stater  was  everywhere  one  fiftieth  of 
Units  and  ^ne  mina  and  the  mina  one  sixtieth  of  the  talent.  A 
rate  of  ex-  difference  in  the  standards  of  weights  coincides  with  a 
difference  in  standards  of  currency.  The  gold  stater, 
weighing  8.4  grammes,  is  about  equal  in  weight  to  the  five  dollar 
gold  piece  (129  grains)  and  slightly  heavier  than  the  English 
sovereign  (123  grains),  but  the  ancient  coin  contains  less  alloy 
and  is  therefore  more  valuable,  about  equal  to  $5.80  (24-$-.).  The 
value  of  the  silver  coins  depends  upon  the  standard  employed 
and  upon  the  relation  existing  between  gold  and  silver.  The 
Aeginetan  stater,  for  instance,  was  worth  not  far  from  half  as 
much  again  as  the  Attic  stater  (or  didrachm).  The  rate  of 
exchange  between  gold  and  silver  varied  at  different  times  and 


COINS  359 

places  and  was  generally  not  fixed  by  law.  At  Athens  in  the 
fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.C.  it  fluctuates  between  1 1^  :  i  and  14:1. 
Perhaps  12^  :  i  or  12:1  may  be  regarded  as  the  usual  rate 
throughout  the  Greek  world  in  classical  times,  though  the  popu- 
lar idea  seems  to  have  been  that  gold  was  worth  about  ten  times 
as  much  as  silver.  As  values  were  usually  reckoned  by  the  Greeks 
in  silver,  it  is  impossible  to  give  their  modern  equivalents  unless 
we  know  what  standard  (Aeginetan,  Attic,  or  other)  is  referred 
to,  and  even  then  the  varying  ratio  of  value  between  silver  and 
gold  causes  complications.  Roughly  speaking,  an  Attic  didrachm 
(stater)  was  worth  about  44!  cents  (is.  IO|Y/.),  and  an  Aeginetan 
stater  about  66  cents  (2S.  qd.).  Electrum  was  rated  at  ten  times 
the  value  of  silver. 

The  invention  of  coinage  is  ascribed  with  great  probability  to 
the  Lydians,  and  the  earliest  coins  (Fig.  267)  were  probably 
struck  in  the  last  part  of  the  eighth  or  the  early  part  of  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  perhaps  in  the  reign  of  Gyges,  716-652  B.C.  The 
great  peoples  of  earlier  times,  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  and  Phoeni- 
cians, had  carried  on  their  trade  without  the  aid  of  coins,  conduct- 
ing their  transactions  by  barter  and  by  weighing  the  Earliest 
precious  metals.  No  doubt  bars  or  rings  of  metal  coinage 
of  fixed  weight  were  also  employed,  much  as  coins  were  used 
in  later  times.  In  fact,  the  difference  between  bars  or  rings  of 
fixed  weight  and  real  coins  consists  merely  in  the  design  or  type 
impressed  upon  the  coins,  by  means  of  which  the  person  or  state 
issuing  them  guarantees  their  weight  and  quality.  The  earliest 
Lydian  coins,  with  mere  striations  on  the  obverse  and  punch 
marks  on  the  reverse,  are,  therefore,  strictly  speaking,  hardly 
coins  at  all,  since  there  is  nothing  about  them  to  show  clearly  by 
whom  they  were  issued.  Probably  their  shape  was  at  first  a  suffi- 
cient indication,  and  it  was  not  long  before  distinct  designs  or 
types  were  added.  The  earliest  coins  were  of  electrum,  but  silver 
began  to  be  coined  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventh  century  B.C. 
in  towns  and  islands  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  Cyclades,  and  at 
Aegina.  These  coins  bear  no  inscriptions,  but  their  types  indicate 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


the  places  of  issue.  The  earliest  coins  of  Aegina  are  said  to  have 
been  struck  by  Pheidon,  king  of  Argos,  who,  according  to  Herod- 
otus, introduced  measures  (probably  including  weights)  among 
the  Peloponnesians,  and  who  is  said  by  later  writers  to  have 
invented  coinage.  The  date  of  Pheidon  is  uncertain,  but  the 
earliest  Aeginetan  coins  belong  to  the  seventh  century  B.C.  Gold 
coins  do  not  appear  until  the  sixth  century  B.C.  and  were  not 
common  before  the  reign  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  561-546  B.C. 

Copper  coins,  which 
are  exceedingly  nu- 
merous in  later  times, 
are  not  known  until 
the  end  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C. 

The  use  of  coinage 
spread   rapidly  from 


FIG.  268.  —  Coin  of  Metapontum.     Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


Types 


the  Lydians  to  their 
Greek  neighbors,  and 
coins  were  struck  in  nearly  every  independent  Greek  city.  The 
types  adopted  were  religious,  for  religion  permeated 
the  whole  life  of  the  Greeks,  but  in  many  places  the 
deities  were  represented  not  directly,  but  by  signs  or  attributes. 
So  at  Metapontum  (Fig.  268)  the  ear  of  wheat  represents  not  so 
much  the  fertility  of  the 
city's  territory  as  the  rever- 
ence for  the  city's  goddess, 
Demeter;  at  Rhodes  the 
rose  (Fig.  269)  is  a  symbol 
of  the  sun  god,  not  a  mere 
pun  on  the  name  of  the 
city  (poSov,  "  rose  ").  Such 
instances  could  be  multi- 
plied, and  it  is  certain  that  in  many,  and  probable  that  in  all, 
cases  in  which  the  types  of  Greek  coins  appear  to  have  no 
religious  significance  it  is  only  our  ignorance  of  the  local  cults 


FIG.  269.  —  Coin  of  Rhodes.     Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


COINS 


361 


FlG.  270.  —  Coin  of  Pheneus. 
(Photograph.) 


Boston. 


FlG.  271. —  Persian  gold  coin. 
Boston.     (Photograph.) 


which  prevents  our  recog- 
nizing what  was  to  the 
Greeks  a  clear  reference  to 
some  deity.  When  deities 
are  directly  represented  the 
type  consists  more  fre- 
quently of  the  head  than  of 
the  entire  figure.  Mytho- 
logical scenes  are  rare.  One  of  the  most  interesting  is  on  a  coin 

struck  about  300  B.C.  at  Pheneus  in  Ar- 
cadia. Here  Hermes  is  represented 
carrying  the  infant  Dionysus  (Fig.  270) 
and  hastening  on  his  way,  not  resting, 
as  Praxiteles  had  portrayed  him  (see 

P-  257)- 

Historical  representations  do  not  ap- 
pear until  a  comparatively  late  period,  nor  is  it  until  Hellenistic 
times  that  the  likenesses  of 
kings  and  rulers  appear  on 
Greek  coins,  though  Per- 
sian coins  show  from  the 
earliest  times  the  effigy  of 
the  Great  King  (Fig.  271). 
The  representations  of  dei- 
ties on  Greek  coins,  whether 
as  heads  or  as  full  figures, 
are  not  until  comparatively  late  times  intended  as  miniature  copies 

of  statues  or  other  works. 
The  head  of  Zeus  on  Elean 
staters  of  the  fifth  century 
is  not  a  copy  of  the  Zeus  of 
Phidias,  nor  of  any  other 
statue,  but  an  original  work 

FIG.  273.-Arg.ve  stater.     (Coins  of  the  °f  the  die  CUtter>  wh°  WaS» 

Ancients,  pi.  23, 36.)  of  course,  a   child  of  his 


FIG.  272.  —  Coin  of  Elis.     ( Coins  of  the 
Ancients,  PI.  14,  29.) 


362 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FIG.  274,  —  Coin  of  Alexander.    Boston.     (Photograph.) 


time  and  much  in- 
fluenced by  the 
sculpture  of  the 
period  (Fig.  272). 
So,  too,  the  Hera 
on  Argive  staters 
(Fig.  273)  is  not 
to  be  regarded  as 
an  exact  copy  after 
the  famous  statue 

by  Polyclitus.  The  dolphins  and  wolf  on  the  reverse  of  this  coin  sym- 
bolize Apollo  as  Delphinius  and  Lycius  respectively.  But  the  Zeus 
Aetophorus  (Eagle- 
bearer)  on  the  reverse 
of  coins  of  Alexander, 
which  was  imitated 
with  some  slight  varia- 
tions by  his  successors 
(Fig.  274),  may  be  in- 
tended as  a  copy  of  an 
otherwise  unknown 
statue,  and  there  is  no 


FIG.  275.  —  Tetradrachm  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
(Coins  of  the  Ancients,  PI.  31,  17.) 


doubt  that  the  obverse  of  the  tetradrachms  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
(Fig.  275)  is  a  copy  of  the  Nike  of  Samo- 
thrace  (see  Fig.  208).  Statue  and  coin 
alike  celebrate  the  naval  victory  over  Ptol- 
emy, gained  off  Cyprus  in  306  B.C.  The 
reverse  of  the  coin  bears  the  figure  of 
Poseidon,  the  sea  god,  in  whose  domain 
the  battle  was  fought.  In  later  times, 
copies  of  statues  are  not  uncommon. 
Among  the  best  known  are  the  head  and 
full  figure  of  the  Zeus  of  Phidias  on 
coins  of  Elis  issued  under  Hadrian  (Figs. 
276,  277),  the  Artemis  of  Ephesus  on 


FIG.  276  —Coin  of  Elis. 
Zeus  of  Phidias.  (Gard- 
ner, Types  of  Greek  Coins, 
PI.  xv,  18.) 


COINS 


363 


coins  struck  at  Ephesus  by  Claudius  and 
Agrippina,  and  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite 
on  a  coin  of  Caracalla  and  Plautina 
struck  at  Cnidus  (Fig.  278).  Such  di- 
rect copying  of  statues  on  coins  is,  how- 
ever, not  to  be  sought  for  in  the  period 
of  Greek  independence.  Under  the 
Romans,  temples  and  even  larger  ob- 
jects, as,  for  instance,  the  Acropolis  at 
Athens,  were  represented  on  coins. 

In  addition  to  the  type,  or  chief  design, 
Greek  coins  usually  bear  inscriptions  and  symbols  or  accessory 

designs.  The  inscription  inscriptions 
generally  gives,  either  in  and  symbols 
the  genitive  case  or  in  the  form  of  an 
adjective,  the  name  of  the  people  or 


FIG.  277.  —  Coin  of  Elis. 
Zeus  of  Phidias.  (Gard- 
ner, Types  of  Greek  Coins, 
PI.  xv,  19.) 


FIG.  278.  —  Coin  of  Cnidus.  (Gardner, 
Types  of  Greek  Coins,  PI.  xv,  21.) 


FlG.  279.  —  Athenian  coin.    Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


king  by  whom  the  coin  is  issued  (see  Figs.  273,  274,  above).  Often 
the  name  is  abbreviated,  as  on  Athenian  coins,  where  A0  E  stands 
for  'A&fvcuW  (Fig. 
279).  Accessory 
inscriptions  occur 
on  many  coins,  de- 
noting, as  on  late 
coins  of  Athens, 
the  officials  re- 
sponsible for  the 
issue  (Fig.  2 80)  Or,  FIG.  280.  —  Late  Athenian  coin.  Boston.  (Photograph.) 


364  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

in  some  instances,  e.g.,  the  splendid  Syracusan  decadrachm  of 
Evaenetus  (where  the  name  is  in  small  characters  below  the 
head),  the  artist  (Fig.  281).  The  inscriptions  were  often  so 
arranged  as  to  form  part  of  the  decoration,  occupying  the  space 
left  vacant  by  the  design.  The  symbols  or  accessory  designs  have 
sometimes  apparently  the  same  meaning  borne  on  other  coins  by 
the  accessory  inscriptions,  and  indicate  by  a  sign  the  responsible 
official ;  in  other  cases  they  are  more  important.  Sometimes  sev- 
eral Greek  cities  entered  into  a  monetary  union  or  alliance  and 
issued  coins  which  were  either  identical  or  only  slightly  distin- 


FlG.  281.  —  Syracusan  decadrachm.    Boston.     (Photograph.) 

guished.  In  the  alliance  between  the  cities  of  southern  Italy  in 
the  sixth  and  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  centuries  B.C.  the  coins 
were  distinguished  by  their  types,  though  alike  in  weight  and 
fabric;  in  the  monetary  union  between  Phocaea  and  Mytilene, 
about  400  B.C.,  the  Phocaean  coins  were  distinguished  by  the 
addition  to  the  type  of  a  seal  (<£w»o?),  the  symbol  of  Phocaea, 
while  those  of  Mytilene  bear  the  inscription  M  or  AE  (Lesbos); 
in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  Side  in  Pamphylia  and  Holmi  in  Cilicia 
issued  staters  with  the  types  of  Artemis  and  Apollo,  but  distin- 
guished them  by  symbols,  Side  using  a  pomegranate,  Holmi  a 
dolphin.  Some  earlier  coins,  bearing  a  pomegranate  and  a  dol- 
phin combined,  were  probably  issued  by  the  two  cities  in  con- 
junction. After  the  reorganization  of  the  Achaean  league,  in 


COINS  365 

280  B.C.,  the  cities  of  which  it  was  composed  gave  up  their  pre- 
vious coinages  and  issued  coins  of  uniform  type,  distinguished 
only  by  inscriptions  or  symbols.  So  the 
coin  represented  in  Figure  282  is  recog- 
nized by  the  symbol  of  the  wolfs  head 
on  the  reverse  as  a  coin  of  Argos,  which 

joined  the  league  in  228  B.C.     The  sym- 

,     ,  .  .  ,,          FIG.      282.  —  Argive      coin. 

bols  are  sometimes  as  important  as  the        Achaean  Lea^    (Coins 

types  themselves.  of  the    Ancients,    PI.  43, 

The   artistic   development   of   Greek 
coins  may  be  divided  chronologically  into  the  following  periods : 

I.  The  period  of  Archaic  Art,  from  the  beginning  of  coinage  to 
the  retreat  of  the  Persians  from  Greece,  700-479  B.C.  ;     Periods  of 

II.  The  Period  of  Transitional  Art,  from  the  retreat   development 
of  the  Persians  to  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  479-404  B.C.  ; 

III.  The  Period  of  Finest  Art,  from  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  to  the  death  of  Philip,  404-336  B.C  ;  IV.  The  Period  of  Later 
Fine  Art,  from  the  death  of  Philip  to  the  reorganization  of  the 
Achaean  League,  336-280  B.C  ;  V.  The  Period  of  Decline  in  Art, 
from  the  reorganization  of  the  Achaean  League  to  the  destruction 
of  Corinth,  280-146  B.C.     To  these  five  periods  two  more  may  be 
added  :    VI.   The  Period  of  Continued  Decline,  from  the  destruc- 
tion of  Corinth  to  the  rise  of  the  Roman  Empire,  146-27  B.C.,  and 
VII.  The  Imperial  Period,  from  Augustus  to  Gallienus,  27  B.C.- 
268  A.D.,  after  which  the  separate  coinage  of  Greek  cities  practically 
ceased.     The  designations  of  some  of  these  periods  are  not,  and 
cannot  be,  exact,  nor  are  the  periods  in  reality  sharply  divided  ; 
the  qualities  of  the  art  of  each  begin  to  show  themselves  in  the 
one  before  and  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  one  after.     Neverthe- 
less, the  division  into  periods  has  the  advantage  of  preparing  the 
student  in  advance  for  the  general  qualities  he  may  expect  to  find 
at  any  given  date.     One  must,  however,  not  forget  that  the  prog- 
ress of  art  is  continuous,  and  is  not  always  greatly  affected  by 
even  the  most  striking  political  events.    Moreover,  in  some  places 
art  advanced  more  rapidly  than  in  others,  and  development  in  the 


366 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FIG.  283.  —  Coin  of  Miletus.  Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


types  of  coins  was  sometimes  (notably  at  Athens)  hindered  or 
prevented  by  the  importance  of  preserving  types  which  had  ac- 
quired widespread  reputation  and  circulation. 

The  earliest  coins  (see  Fig.  267  above)  were  speedily  followed 
by  coins  with  clear  types,  though  the  lentoid  or  bean-like  form 
Archaic  was  *°r  a  snort  t'me  retained.  The  types  were  for  the 
period.  most  part  not  figures  or  even  heads  of  deities,  but 

Early  types  svmbolic  representations,  often  animals  or  heads  of 
animals,  frequently  more  or  less  grotesque.  Such  a  coin  is  the 
Phoenician  stater  of  Miletus  (Fig.  283),  the  obverse  of  which  bears 

a  lion's  head,  while  the  reverse 
is  marked  with  an  incuse  oblong 
between  two  incuse  squares. 
This,  like  most  coins  of  this  pe- 
riod, is  of  electrum.  It  probably 
belongs  to  the  period  of  the  high- 
est prosperity  of  Miletus,  before 
623  B.C.  The  earliest  inscribed  coin  (Fig.  284),  also  an  electrum 
stater,  was  found  at  Halicarnassus.  It  bears  on  the  obverse  a  stag 
feeding  and  the  inscrip- 
tion in  retrograde  letters 
<t>ANOS  EMI  TOSHMA, 
on  the  reverse  an  incuse 
oblong  between  two  incuse 

FIG.  284.  —  Earliest  inscribed  coin.    (  Coins  of 
the  Ancients,  PI.  i,  j.) 

"  I  am  the  sign  of  Phanes,"  and  the  Phanes  mentioned  has  been 
regarded  as  a  Halicarnassian,  perhaps  an  ancestor  of  the  Halicar- 
nassian  Phanes  who  deserted  the  service  of  the  Egyptian  king 
Amasis  for  that  of  the  Persian  Cambyses,  whom  he  aided  in  his 
invasion  of  Egypt  in  525  B.C.  It  has,  however,  been  pointed 
out  that  the  genitive  4>ANO^  (for  <£tu/ov<;)  does  not  belong  to 
the  masculine  nominative  ®dvr}<;,  but  rather  to  the  feminine  <£avu>, 
an  epithet  of  Artemis.  The  stag  is  one  of  the  regular  attributes 
of  Artemis.  It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  coin  is  to  be  as- 


squares.     The   inscription 
has  usually  been  translated 


COINS 


367 


FIG.  285.  —  Early  Aeginetan  coin. 
Boston.     ( Photograph.) 


cribed  to  Ephesus  rather  than  to  Halicarnassus.  Throughout 
this  period  the  reverse  is  almost  always  marked  with  an  incuse 
square,  which  is  often  divided  by  lines  and  sometimes,  especially 
toward  the  end  of  the  period,  contains  a  symbol  or  type.  In 
some  places  the  incuse  square  is  retained  in  the  second  period, 
and  it  occurs  even  later.  At  different  times  within  the  first  period 
several  cities  adopted  the  types  to 
which  they  clung  as  long  as  they  con- 
tinued to  coin  money.  So  Thebes 
adopted  the  Boeotian  shield,  Aegi- 
na  the  tortoise  (Fig.  285,  a  silver 
stater,  of  the  second  series  of  Aegina, 
issued  between  550  and  480  B.C.), 
and  Corinth  a  prancing  Pegasus. 

Heads  of  deities  or  human  beings  do  not  appear  until  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century.  The  earliest  coins  of  Corinth  were 

issued  probably  in  the  reign 
of  Periander,  625-585  B.C. 
The  stater  represented  in  Fig- 
ure 286  is  one  of  a  series  of  flat 
coins  struck  at  a  slightly  later 
period,  but  probably  still  be- 
fore 550  B.C.  The  sign  under 
the  Pegasus  is  the  letter  koppa 
(the  Latin  Q),  the  initial  letter  of  the  name  Corinth  in  the  old 
alphabet.  This  letter  was  retained  on  the  coins  after  the  Ionic 
alphabet  was  introduced  in  all  other  writing.  The  incuse  square 
is  here  so  varied  as  to  assume  the  form  of  a  tetraskelion  or  swas- 
tika. Later  coins  of  Corinth  substitute  for  it  a  beautiful  head  of 
Athena  or  the  armed  Aphrodite.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century  Athens  began  to  issue  silver  coins  with  the  head  of  Athena 
on  the  obverse  and  an  owl  on  the  reverse  (Fig.  287).1  These  are 

1  Earlier  coins  ascribed  with  much  probability  to  Athens  have  various  types 
(owl,  wheel,  horse,  amphora,  triskelion,  knucklebone)  on  the  obverse,  and 
on  the  reverse  an  incuse  square  divided  into  four  triangles  by  diagonals. 


FIG.  286.  —  Corinthian  coin.     ( Coins  of 
the  Ancients,  PI.  6,  31.) 


368 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FIG.  287.  — Athenian  coin. 
(Photograph.) 


the  earliest  known  coins  with  a  type  on  each  side.     In  later  times 
these  types  were  only  slightly  varied. 

Throughout  the  archaic  period  the  types  of  coins  show  qualities 
similar  to  those  of  the  sculpture  of  the  same  epoch.     The  earliest 

work  is  rude,  but  as  art 
advances  the  work  grows 
finer  and  shows  greater 
care  and  elegance.  There 
are  manifest  faults  in  draw- 
ing, as  in  the  contempo- 
rary relief  work.  So  the 
Boston.  eye  is  always  given  in  full 

face,  even  when  the  head 
is  in  profile  (e.g.  in  Fig.  287),  the  postures  of  human  beings  are 
more  or  less  angular  and  unnatural,  and  the  muscles  are  exagger- 
ated. This  last  quality  is  especially  noticeable  in 
coins  of  Thrace  and  neighboring  regions,  such  as 
the  silver  coin  from  Lete  (Fig.  288,  rev.  incuse 
square),  but  is  present  in  greater  or  less  degree  in 
all  coin  types  of  the  period  which  represent  com- 
plete figures. 

The  coins  are  almost  invariably  thick  and  irreg- 
ular in  shape.  A  marked  exception  is  seen  in 
the  coins  of  several  cities  of  southern 
Italy  (see  Fig.  268).  The  style  of  manufacture,  or,  to 
use  the  technical  expression,  the  fabric  of  these  coins  differs 
widely  from  that  of  the  pieces  struck  in  other  regions.  They 
are  not  thick,  but  flat,  and  instead  of  bearing  on  their  two  sides 
a  type  in  relief  and  an  incuse  square  or  two  different  types  in 
relief,  they  bear  on  the  reverse  an  incuse  reproduction  of  the  type 
of  the  obverse.  In  some  instances,  as  in  the  coins  of  Croton 
with  a  tripod  in  relief  on  the  obverse  and  a  flying  eagle,  incuse, 
on  the  reverse,  and  the  federal  money  of  Croton  and  Sybaris, 
bearing  on  the  obverse  the  tripod  of  Croton  in  relief  and  on  the 
reverse  the  bull  of  Sybaris,  incuse,  different  types  are  employed 


FIG.  288.— Coin 
of  Lete.  Bos- 
ton. (Photo- 
graph.) 


Italian  fabric 


COINS  369 

without  essential  change  in  fabric.  This  remarkable  method  has 
the  practical  advantage  of  allowing  the  coins  of  the  same  issue  to 
be  piled  one  upon  another,  like  the  flat  coins  of  modern  times. 
The  practical  convenience,  however,  cannot  have  been  great,  as 
this  fabric  was  soon  given  up,  and  these  cities  (with  the  exception 
of  Sybaris,  which  was  destroyed  in  510  B.C.)  began  about  500  B.C. 
to  issue  thick  coins,  of  smaller  dimensions,  with  a  type  in  relief 
on  each  side. 

Since  the  art  of  coinage  spread  from  the  east  to  the  west,  the 
Greeks  of  Sicily  and  Italy  naturally  began  to  issue  coins  somewhat 
later  than  their  more  eastern  kinsfolk.  Some  of  the  coins  of  the 
Chalcidian  colonies  in  Sicily  (Naxus,  Zancle,  and  Himera)  may 
belong  to  the  last  part  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  but  the  coinage 
of  nearly  all  the  cities  of  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  begins  little,  if 
at  all,  before  550  B.C.  This  accounts  in  part  for  the  fact  that 
their  first  coins  are  finer  than  the  earliest  issues  of  the  more  east- 
ern Greeks,  but  does  not  explain  the  remarkable  development  of 
Sicilian  coinage  in  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries.  Whatever  the 
reason  may  have  been,  the  Italian,  and  especially  the  Sicilian, 
Greeks  seem  from  the  first  to  have  paid  unusual  attention  to  the 
beauty  of  their  coins. 

Every  period  in  the  history  of  art  is  necessarily  a  period  of 
transition  from  what  precedes  to  what  follows  it,  for  art  is  never 
stationary,  but  always  progresses  to  something  better  Period  Of 
or  degenerates  to  something  worse.  Nevertheless,  transitional 
the  transitional  nature  of  the  coin  engraver's  art  be- 
tween  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  and  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  is  especially  manifest.  In  the  earlier  coins  of  this  period  the 
style  is  still  archaic,  the  eye  is  represented  as  if  seen  from  the 
front  when  the  head  is  in  profile,  the  forms,  attitudes,  and  muscles 
of  human  figures  are  stiff  and  exaggerated  ;  in  short,  the  qualities 
which  distinguish  the  period  before  the  Persian  Wars  are  still 
present,  but  are  becoming  slightly  less  prominent.  The  incuse 
square  on  the  reverse  is  still  common,  especially  in  the  East,  and 
in  general  the  coinage  of  the  East  is  more  conservative  than  that 

GREEK   ARCH. 24 


370  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  the  West.  By  the  end  of  the  period  nearly  all  coins  show 
complete  mastery  of  technique,  natural  treatment  of  the  eyes, 
muscles,  and  other  details,  graceful  postures  when  entire  figures 
are  represented,  and  designs  perfectly  adapted  to  the  round  space 
they  have  to  fill.  Even  in  the  first  period  the  design  was  usually 
well  adapted  to  the  space,  but  in  this  respect,  as  in  all  others,  the 
fifth  century  shows  a  marked  advance. 

One  might  expect  that  at  Athens,  where,  under  the  regime  of 
Pericles,  art  of  all  kinds  was  encouraged  as  never  before,  where 
the  Parthenon  was  rising  in  its  matchless  beauty  to  enshrine  the 
glorious  gold  and  ivory  Athena  of  Phidias,  where  Myron  was  per- 
fecting the  representation  of  animals  and  of  the  human  form  in 
motion,  while  Alcamenes  was  rivalling  his  great  master,  where 
Polygnotus  and  ApoHodorus  were  producing  pictures  which  may 
perhaps  have  equalled  the  sculptured  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  and 
where  even  the  humble  painters  of  vases  were  artists  and  con- 
Athenian  summate  draughtsmen,  —  one  might  expect  that  at 
coinage  Athens  new  and  perfectly  beautiful  coin  types  would 
be  created.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  As  the  power  of  Athens 
grew,  her  commerce  also  increased,  and  the  excellence  of  her 
coinage  was  everywhere  recognized.  Athenian  "  owls  "  so-called 
from  the  type  of  the  reverse,  were  the  staple  currency  of  the 
Aegean,  and  a  change  of  type  might  cause  serious  inconvenience 
and  possibly  loss  of  trade.  The  Athenians  therefore  preserved 
the  type  they  had  adopted  a  century  earlier,  even  retaining  the 
archaic  representation  of  the  eye  in  full  face  (see  Figs.  279  and 
287).  Nevertheless,  the  new  coins,  while  preserving  the  essential 
features  of  the  earlier  issues,  show  a  decided  advance  in  clearness 
and  sharpness  of  outline,  and  much  beauty  of  detail.  The  eye  of 
the  Athena  is  no  longer  round  and  protruding,  but  rather 
elongated,  the  hair  is  arranged  in  two  simple  waves  over  the  fore- 
head and  temples,  not  in  a  series  of  artificial  locks,  and  the 
ornamentation  of  the  helmet  is  more  carefully  designed  and 
executed.  On  the  reverse  the  body  of  the  owl  is  now  rendered 
with  remarkable  liveliness,  though  the  head  is  singularly  conven- 


COINS 


FIG.  289.  —  Coin  of  Aenus. 
(Photograph.) 


Boston. 


tional.  A  new  symbol,  a  small  crescent  beside  the  head  of  the 
owl,  now  appears.  In  spite  of  the  strong  commercial  reasons  for 
the  preservation  of  the  old  type,  the  new  coins  have  a  beauty  that 
does  not  belong  to  the  earlier  issues. 

In  other  places,  where  commercial  reasons  operated  less  strongly 
than  at  Athens  to  preserve  the  archaic  types,  the  coins  follow  more 
closely  the  development  of  con- 
temporary sculpture.  A  tetra- 
drachm  of  Aenus,  in  Thrace, 
has  on  the  obverse  a  head  of 
Hermes  which  reminds  one 
somewhat  of  the  fine  marble 
head  in  Athens  attributed  to 
a  date  about  480  B.C.  (Fig. 
154).  The  coin  was  struck  not 
earlier  than  450  B.C.,  and  shows  that  the  Thracian  die  cutter  was 
not  quite  as  advanced  as  the  great  sculptors  of  his  day,  but  had 
already  progressed  far  toward  complete  truth  and  freedom  (Fig. 
289).  The  goat  on  the  reverse  is  a  real  masterpiece. 

To  the  very  beginning  of  this  period  belongs  a  series  of  deca- 
drachms  (or,  to  use  the  Sicilian  word,  pentecontalitra)  struck  at 

Syracuse.      Diodorus 

,  =^3-:^- 


(XI,  26)  narrates  that 
after  the  battle  of 
Himera,  in  480  B.C., 
in  which  the  Cartha- 
ginians were  defeated 
by  Gelo,  a  peace  was 
arranged  by  the  in- 
tervention of  Gelo's 
wife,  Demarete,  on 


FlG.  290.  —  Syracusan  decadrachm. 
Ancients,  PI.  17,  33.) 


( Coins  of  the 


terms  so  favorable  to  the  Carthaginians  that  they  showed  their 

gratitude  by  presenting  her  with  a  thousand  talents  of 

gold.     From  the  proceeds  were  struck  the  decadrachms 

called  "  Demareteia"  one  of  which  is  represented  in  Figure  290. 


Demareteia 


372  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

On  the  obverse  is  a  head  of  Arethusa  (or  perhaps  Nike),  crowned 
with  olive,  and  around  it  four  dolphins.  If,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested, the  dolphins  symbolize  the  salt  water  by  which  the  famous 
spring  of  Arethusa  at  Syracuse  was  surrounded,  the  head  on  the 
obverse  represents  the  nymph  of  the  spring.  In  that  case  the 
olive  wreath  seems  somewhat  out  of  place,  unless  Arethusa  herself 
be  regarded  as  a  symbol  for  the  city  of  Syracuse.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  head  represents  Nike,  the  wreath  of  victory  is  eminently 
appropriate,  but  the  dolphins  can  hardly  be  explained  unless  they 
are  regarded  as  symbols  of  the  salt  water  surrounding  the  city. 
The  type  of  the  reverse  represents  a  slowly  moving  quadriga,  the 
horses  crowned  by  a  flying  Nike.  In  the  exergue  (the  space  be- 
low the  type)  is  a  lion.  The  coin  is  still  archaic  in  many  respects, 
especially  in  the  treatment  of  the  eye  and  in  the  figure  of  the 

charioteer,  but  shows 
the  highest  attainment 
in  the  coin  engraver's 
art  about  479  B.C. 

A  remarkable  coin  of 
about  the  middle  of  this 
period,  or  perhaps  some- 
FIG.  291.  —  Coin  of  Naxus.    Boston.  what   later,  is   a   tetra- 

drachm    of    Naxus    in 

Sicily,  with  a  bearded  head  of  Dionysus  on  the  obverse  and  a 
bearded  Silenus  holding  a  wine  cup  on  the  reverse  (Fig.  291). 
The  execution  is  hard,  and  the  Dionysus  has  a  leering  expression, 
which  is  probably  intended  as  a  benign  smile.  The  eye  is, 
Coins  of  however,  given  in  profile,  and  the  details  of  hair  and 
Naxus  beard  are  accurately  rendered.  The  Silenus  shows  what 
a  difficult  task  the  die  cutter  could  accomplish.  The  foreshorten- 
ing of  the  right  leg  is  remarkably  well  done,  and  the  whole  figure 
is  admirably  arranged  to  fill  the  round  space.  The  beard  reminds 
one  of  that  given  to  centaurs  in  the  western  pediment  of  the 
temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  and  to  similar  wild  creatures  on  Attic 
vase  paintings.  The  muscles  are  lumpy  and  exaggerated,  but 


COINS 


373 


FIG.  292.  —  Coin  of  Naxus.    Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


show  careful  study  of  nature.     The  whole  coin  impresses  us  with 
its  vigor,  firmness  of  style,   and  sincerity.     It  is  instructive  to 
compare  with  this  a  sec- 
ond coin  of  Naxus  struck 
in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fifth  century.     Here  the 
same  types  are  rendered 
in  a  softer,  more  grace- 
ful,  and   more  finished 
style  (Fig.  292). 

The  staters  of  Elis 
form  one  of  the  finest 
series  of  Greek  coins,  extending  from  about  480  to  322  B.C.  The 
types  are  nearly  all  connected  with  Zeus.  Most  usual  are  the  eagle, 
the  thunderbolt,  and  Nike.  On  some  issues  Zeus  himself  appears, 
on  others  Hera,  on  still  others  Olympia.  A  stater  struck  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifth  century  (Fig.  272),  still  shows 
something  of  the  dignified  severity  of  the  art  of  Phidias. 
Indeed,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  style  of  the  Zeus  of  Phidias 
may  be  understood  with  the  aid  of  this  coin  better  than  with  that 
of  the  later  bronze  (Fig.  276),  though  the  latter  is  without  much 
doubt  intended  to  reproduce  the  features  of  the  great  statue.  On 
the  reverse  the  letters  FA  at  the  sides  of  the  thunderbolt  stand  for 
FA  A  E  ION  (Attic  'HAeiW),  for  Elis  continued  to  use  the  digamma 

on  her  coins  even  in  Ro- 
man times. 

By  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  Greek  coinage 
shows  complete  mastery  of 
technique,  freedom  of  style, 
and  delicacy  of  execution  ; 
in  other  words,  the  period 
of  the  finest  art  in  coin 
engraving  is  reached.  A  comparison  of  an  Elean  stater  of  the 
middle  or  latter  part  of  this  period  (Fig.  293)  with  the  coin  just 


FIG.  293.  —  Coin  of  Elis.    Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


374  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

described  (Fig.  272)  shows  marked  difference  of  style.  The  later 
coin  is  far  clearer  and  sharper,  which  may  be,  however,  in  part  due 
Period  of  to  its  better  preservation,  and  it  shows  far  greater  free- 
finest  art  dom  and  ease  in  the  treatment  of  details,  especially 
of  the  hair.  On  the  reverse  the  eagle  is  admirable.  Another 
interesting  coin  of  this  period  is  the  Argive  stater  (Fig.  273). 
Pausanias  describes  the  famous  and  beautiful  gold  and  ivory  statue 
of  Hera  by  Polyclitus  as  seated  on  a  throne  and  wearing  a  crown 
{stephane)  adorned  with  figures  of  the  Horae  and  Charites. 
Such  an  elaborate  adornment  would  be  ill  adapted  for  representa- 
tion on  a  coin,  and  a  coin  engraver  might  well  adopt  a  simpler 
kind  of  ornament,  while  still  intending  to  copy  the  features  of  the 
statue.  The  similarity  of  this  ornament  to  some  of  the  decorative 
carving  of  the  temple  in  which  the  statue  was  placed  adds  to  the 
probability  that  the  coin  engraver  had  the  great  temple  statue  in 
mind  ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  in  other  details,  such 
as  the  arrangement  of  the  locks  of  hair,  or  even  in  the  exact  propor- 
tions of  the  face,  the  coin  imitates  the  statue  more  closely  than 
in  the  crown.  In  fact,  there  are  several  issues  of  Argive  coins 
adorned  with  the  head  of  Hera,  and  no  two  issues  offer  exactly  the 
same  type.  It  is  therefore  hardly  possible  to  assume  for  these 
beautiful  coin  types  more  than  a  general  resemblance  to  the 

head  of  the  great  statue. 
Coins  of  Elis  belonging 
apparently  to  this  period 
have  a  similar  type,  which 
may  also  be  inspired  by 
the  statue  in  the  Argive 
Heraeum  without  being  in 
FIG.  294.— Coin  of  Aenus.  Boston.  any  prOper  sense  copies 

(Photograph.)  / 

of  it. 

A  fine  coin  of  Aenus  (Fig.  294)  exhibits  a  peculiarity  which  shows 

Head  in  full     itself  in  several  places  during  this  period — the  repre- 

face          sentation  of  a  head  in   full  face.     Some  coins  with 

such  heads  are  exceedingly  beautiful,  among  them  especially  some 


COINS  375 

issues  of  Amphipolis  and  of  Syracuse.  But  although  such  types 
give  the  engraver  an  opportunity  to  exhibit  great  skill  and  artistic 
ability,  they  are  not  well  adapted  for  use,  as  the  projecting  parts 
of  the  face  are  too  much  exposed  to  wear.  The  fashion  of  repre- 
senting heads  in  full  face  was  therefore  not  generally  adopted  and 
was  soon  given  up,  though  it  appears  again  later  in  some  Rhodian 
coins  (Fig.  269).  This  coin  from  Aenus,  like  the  coin  from  the 
same  place  reproduced  above  (Fig.  289),  has  a  head  of  Hermes 
on  the  obverse  and  a  goat  on  the  reverse,  but  in  freedom  of  style 
and  beauty  of  technique  the  later  coin  is  far  superior  to  the  earlier. 

The  superb  Syracusan  decadrachm  of  Evaenetus  (Fig.  281)  is 
one  of  the  masterpieces  of  Greek  coinage.  The  cities  of  Sicily 
seem  to  have  vied  with  each  other  in  issuing  the  most  Syracusan 
beautiful  coins  possible,  and  the  fact  that  the  engravers  decadrachms 
signed  their  names  to  the  coins  shows  that  their  standing  as  artists 
was  duly  recognized.  Besides  Evaenetus,  several  other  artists, 
among  whom  Cimon  is  justly  most  famous,  signed  their  names  on 
Syracusan  coins.  Never  has  the  art  of  coin  engraving  attained 
such  a  height  as  that  marked  by  these  Syracusan  coins  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.  On  the  decadrachm  of  Evaenetus  the  type  of  the 
obverse  represents  either  Arethusa  or  (more  probably)  Persephone, 
that  of  the  reverse  a  victorious  quadriga.  In  the  exergue  are  a 
helmet,  thorax,  greaves,  and  shield,  no  doubt  the  prizes  in  the 
games  to  which  the  chariot  refers.  It  is  not  improbable  that  these 
splendid  coins  were  issued  annually  in  connection  with  the  Assinaria, 
games  held  in  commemoration  of  the  defeat  of  the  Athenians  by 
the  Syracusans  at  the  river  Assinarus,  in  413  B.C. 

The  coinage  of  Philip  II  of  Macedon  (359-336  B.C.)     is  of 
unusual  interest  because  it  presents  the  first  known  example  of  an 
attempt  to  establish  a  fixed  ratio  of  value  between  gold  Coinage  of 
and  silver  and  also  because  its  types  were  long  imitated     Philip  II 
in  the  coinage  of  Gaul  and  Britain  after  the  Gauls  invaded  Greece 
in  the  third  century  B.C.      Until  Philip's  time  the  Persian  daric 
was  the  standard  gold  coin  of  the  whole  Aegean  region.     When 
Philip  gained  possession  of  the  gold  mines  of  Philippi,  he  proceeded 


376  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

to  issue  from  mints  in  various  parts  of  his  dominions  his  own  gold 
staters  on  the  daric  standard,  but  slightly  heavier  than  the  Persian 
daric.  For  his  silver  he  adopted  the  Phoenician  standard,  which 
made  fifteen  silver  staters,  or  thirty  drachmas,  equal  in  value  to  one 
gold  stater  at  the  ratio  of  \2\  :  i  for  the  value  of  gold  and  silver. 
This  was  the  market  value  at  the  time,  and  the  round  numbers  (15 
and  30  :  i)  resulting  from  the  standard  adopted  had  a  natural 
tendency  to  keep  the  standard  fixed.  Nevertheless,  the  great  in- 
crease in  the  production  of  gold  caused  the  value  of  that  metal  to 
fall,  so  that  Alexander  on  his  accession  was  forced  to  abandon  the 
plan  of  bimetallism.  He  coined  his  gold  and  silver  on  the  same 
standard,  using  silver  as  the  basis  of  his  currency  and  making  no 
attempt  to  fix  the  relative  value  of  the  two  metals.  The  obverse 
of  Philip's  gold  coins  bears  the  head  of  the  youthful  Heracles  in 
the  lion's  skin,  or  the  head  of  Apollo  (sometimes  of  Ares?). 

Apollo  and  the  youthful  Heracles 
are  also  the  types  of  his  bronzes 
and  occur  most  frequently  on  his 
silver  coins,  some  of  which  bear 
the  head  of  Zeus  or  of  Arte- 
mis. The  reverse  types  are  all 
FIG.  295. -Gold  stater  of  Philip.  agonistic,  referring  to  Philip's 

Boston.     (Photograph.) 

victories  in  the  Olympic  games 
(see  Fig.  295,  a  gold  stater  of  Philip). 

In  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors, the  Diadochi,  the  technical  execution  of  coins  remains 
Period  of     almost,  if  not  quite,  at  the  height  attained  in  the  pre- 
later  fine     vious  period,  but  the  character  of  the  types  changes. 
The  most  usual  type  for  the  obverse  is  the  portrait 
of  Alexander  in   the  character  of  Heracles,   wearing  the  lion's 
head  as  a  helmet.     The  reverse  usually  associated  with  this  type 
represents  a  seated  Zeus  holding  an  eagle  in  his  right  hand  and 
a  sceptre   in  his  left  (Fig.   274).      These    types  were  used   on 
coins  struck  by  Alexander  in  various  parts  of  his  great  empire,  and 
his  successors  continued  to  employ  them.    It  is  therefore  sometimes 


COINS  377 

impossible  to  determine  the  date  or  place  at  which  a  given  coin 
was  struck,  though  in  most  cases  inscriptions,  symbols,  and  pecu- 
liarities of  fabric  are  of  assistance  to  the  student.  In  Figure  274  the 
cluster  of  grapes  under  the  hand  of  Zeus  and  the  monogram  under 
the  throne  serve  to  distinguish  from  other  coins  of  the  same  types 
this  issue,  which  may  be  attributed  to  Maronea  and  to  the  time  be- 
fore Alexander's  death  (323  B.C.).  The  portrait  of  Alexander  is 
not  a  simple  human  portrait,  but  represents  him  with  the  attributes 
of  Heracles,  and  forms  in  this  way  a  transition  from  the  divine  or 
semi-divine  types  of  earlier  coinage  to  the  human  portraits  of  later 
times.  The  first  king  to  put  his  own  head  on  coins,  without  divine 
or  heroic  attributes,  was  Ptolemy  Soter. 

Among  the  many  beautiful  coins  of  this  period  the  tetradrachm 

-  -*» 

of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  mentioned  above  (Fig.  275)  'is  of  ex- 
ceptional interest  because  it  reproduces  the  magnificent  influence  of 
statue  of  Nike  from  Samothrace.     The  type  of  the  sculptures 
reverse  represents  Poseidon  in  an  attitude  inherited  from  earlier 
times,  but  in  finished  and  elegant  execution.     It  may  be  too  much 
to  say  that  the  figure  is 
a  product  of  the  school 
of  Lysippus,   but  it  is 
evident    enough    that 
the  die  cutter,  though 
reproducing    a    tradi- 
tional,   and    even    ar- 
chaic, attitude,  is  him-          FIG.  296.  —  Syracusan  tetradrachm.    Boston, 
self  trained  in  the  style  (Photograph.) 

of  his  own  times.  The  Rhodian  coin,  Figure  269,  of  about 
304  B.C.,  shows  in  its  brilliant  head  of  Helios,  with  rays  as  of 
light  streaming  from  it,  an  expression  which  would  have  been 
impossible  before  Scopas.  Other  coins  show  clearly  the  influence 
of  Praxiteles  and  his  school.  Such  a  coin  is  a  Syracusan  tetra- 
drachm struck  probably  between  310  and  305  B.C.  On  the 
obverse  is  a  head  of  Persephone  with  the  inscription  KOPA5, 
while  the  reverse  has  a  winged  Nike  erecting  a  trophy  (Fig.  296). 


378  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

In  general,  the  types  of  this  period  show  more  softness  of  modelling 
than  those  of  the  time  before  Alexander,  more  expression  in  faces, 
and,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  period,  greater  slenderness  of  the 
human  form. 

In  the  fifth  period  (280-146  B.C.)  the  coin  types  show  in  gen- 
eral less    originality  of  design   and   less  care  in  execution   than 
Period  of      before.     Portraits  of  kings  become  the  usual  type  of 
decline       the   obverse,   though   not  to  the  exclusion   of  other 
types ;  figures  of  deities,  sometimes  copies  of  statues,  appear  fre- 
quently, usually   on   the  reverse,  and   inscriptions  become  more 
prominent,  these  also  for  the  most  part  on  the  reverse  (Fig.  280). 
Among  the  types  of  this  period  the  portraits  are  the  best  and  most 

interesting,  some  of 
them  being  admirably 
expressive.  The  sculp- 
ture of  this  period  is 
best  known  to  us  in  the 
striking  mythological 
and  historical  works  of 
the  Pergamene  school : 

FIG.  297.  — Gold  coin  of  Ptolemy  II.     Boston. 

(Photograph.)  the  coins  show  tnat  the 

art  of  portraiture  was 

also  carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  excellence,  and  they  present  a 
series  of  portraits  of  the  kings  of  Egypt,  Bactria,  Syria,  Pontus, 
Bithynia,  Pergamon,  Macedon,  and  Sicily,  which  possesses  great 
historical,  as  well  as  artistic,  interest.  The  reverse  types  of  these 
coins  are  generally  figures  of  deities,  often  in  imitation  of  statues. 
A  striking  specimen  of  portraits  on  a  coin  of  this  period  is  pre- 
sented by  a  gold  coin  of  Ptolemy  II  (285-247  B.C.).  On  the 
obverse  are  portraits  of  Ptolemy  II  and  his  wife  Arsinoe  II,  with 
the  inscription  OEQN  AAEA<t>QN,  on  the  reverse  portraits  of 
Ptolemy  I  and  Berenice  I  (Fig.  297).  Here  the  features  of  the 
reigning  monarchs  and  their  predecessors  are  evidently  rendered 
with  the  utmost  realism  and  truth. 

A  good  example  of  the  work  of  this  period  other  than  portraits 


COINS  379 

is  a  silver  coin  of  the  Achaean  League  (Fig.  282).  The  head  of 
Zeus  is  well  drawn,  but  not  so  carefully  executed  as  in  earlier  times, 
and  the  reverse,  instead  of  bearing  a  real  type,  is  occupied  by 
symbols  enclosed  in  a  wreath.  The  use  of  wreaths  in  the  decora- 
tion of  coins  is  not  uncommon  in  this  period.  On  some  Mace- 
donian coins  the  head  of  the  obverse  is  placed  on  a  round  shield, 
the  ornamental  border  of  which  forms,  as  it  were,  a  decorative 
frame  about  the  head.  In  general,  the  coins  of  this  period  are, 
with  the  exception  of  the  portraits,  far  less  interesting  as  works  of 
art  than  those  of  the  previous  periods,  and  as  time  advances  even 
the  portraits  deteriorate.  The  fabric  of  the  coins  is  also  different 
from  that  in  use  before.  The  earlier  thickness  gives  place  to 
breadth  and  flatness,  and  the  space  thus  gained  on  the  coin  is 
utilized  for  the  longer  and  more  elaborate  inscription  now  coming 
into  vogue.  In  all  these  respects  the  last  period  of  Greek  in- 
dependence shows  a  great  decline  in  the  art  of  coinage,  a  decline 
which  was  still  more  marked  under  the  rule  of  Rome. 

In  the  period  from  146  to  27  B.C.  the  Roman  power  spread 
over  the  Greek  world,  and  in  most  Greek  cities  the  coinage  of 
gold  and  silver  came  to  an  end,  though  Athens  con-        .      f 
tinued  to  issue  silver   coins   until    86   B.C.,   and   the  continued 
privilege  of  coining  was  granted  to  other  cities  also  decline 
at  various  times.     Copper  coins  continued  to  be  struck  in  various 
cities   under    the    Republic   and   also    under    the    Empire.     At 
Athens,  no   coins  were  struck   after  86   B.C.  until   the   time   of 
Hadrian,  when  the  coinage  of  copper  was  recommenced.     The 
work  of  coins  issued  under  the  Republic  is  rude. 

With  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  Empire  under  Augustus,  the 
coins  in  some  places  improve  for  a  time,  and  again  under 
Hadrian  there  is  a  temporary  ^improvement,  but  after  that  the 
style  grows  constantly  ruder,  the  coins  themselves  become,  as 
a  rule,  flatter,  and  the  field  is  in  many  places  more  and  more 
completely  filled  with  the  characters  of  the  inscription.  Except 
in  Crete  and  some  places  in  Asia,  the  coinage  of  Greek  cities 
under  the  Empire  was  virtually  restricted  to  copper. 


380  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

The  coins  issued  in  Greek  cities  under  Roman  sway  are  often 
historically  interesting,  and  the  student  of  art  values  some  of  them 
(e.g.  Figs.  276,  277,  278)  because  they  reproduce  famous  statues 
or  other  monuments,  but  in  themselves,  regarded  as  works  of  art, 
they  are,  with  comparatively  few  exceptions,  devoid  of  interest. 


CHAPTER  VII 
ENGRAVED  GEMS 

THE  engraved  gems  of  the  Mycenaean  Age  (see  pp.  82-85), 
chiefly  hard  stones  of  round  or  lentoid  shape,  exhibit  the  general 
qualities  of  Mycenaean  art  —  liveliness,  freedom  of  motion,  and 
vigor  of  design.  The  subjects  represented  are  animals  (chiefly 
wild),  deities  and  religious  scenes,  and  fantastic  or  demoniac 
forms,  such  as  griffins  and  sphinxes.  These  gems  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  often  of  fine  execution. 

In  the  "  Greek  Middle  Ages  "  all  this  is  changed.  The  gems 
are  neither  numerous  nor  of  good  workmanship,  their  material  is 
serpentine,  steatite,  or  some  other  relatively  soft  stone,  theii 
shape  is  generally  round  or  oval,  or  rectangular  with  rounded  cor- 
ners. The  scarab,  of  glass  paste,  "  Egyptian  faience," 

•    •         i        i  -i  i    •  i  i     ~  "he  Greek 

or  stone,  is  introduced,  as  is  also  the  scaraboid.1    Some  Middle  Ages. 

other  shapes  also  occur.     In  general,  the  shapes  are  Geometrical 
imitations  of  those  in  use  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  the  8  y  e 
imitation  extends  to  the  technique,  as  when  scarabs  are  made  of 
"  Egyptian  faience  "  or  of  glass.     The  decora- 
tion is,  however,  geometric  in  style  and  Eu- 
ropean, not  oriental,  in  choice  of  subjects  (Fig. 
298).     Linear  ornaments,  horses  and  wagons, 
and  rude  human  figures  are  found,  but  fantastic     pJG    ^g.  —  Steatite 
and  demoniac  figures  are,  with  the  exception        scaraboid,  Cyprus, 
of  the  centaur,  absent.     Whereas  the  Myce-         STSlIS.'a 
naean  gems  were  engraved  with  the  aid  of  the         IV.  53.) 

1  The  scarab  is  a  stone  cut  in  imitation  of  a  beetle.  The  scaraboid  has 
somewhat  the  shape  of  the  scarab,  but  without  any  imitation  of,  for  instance, 
the  beetle's  wings.  It  is,  then,  merely  an  oblong  stone,  flat  on  one  side  and 
convex  on  the  other.  Its  shape  is  probably  not  derived  from  that  of  the  scarab. 

381 


382  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

wheel,1  the  gems  of  the  geometrical  period  are  engraved  by  hand, 
with  the  hand  drill  and  the  point.  They  are  most  numerous  in 
the  southern  and  southeastern  regions,  where  the  influence  of 
Syria  and  Egypt  is  strongest.  All  this  shows  that  both  in  Syria 
and  in  Greece  great  changes  accompanied  the  breaking  up  of  the 
Mycenaean  civilization,  changes  caused  by  inroads  from  Europe 
and  the  north.  At  the  same  time  the  influence  of  Syria  upon 
Greece  is  evident,  especially  in  the  forms  of  the  stones. 

In  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  the  oriental  influence  grows  stronger. 
At  this  time  the  lonians,  whose  intercourse  with  Assyria  and 

Egypt  was   constant,  had  the   greatest   influence  on 
Seventh  cen- 
tury.  Greek  art,  and  in  Greece  proper  Corinth  and   Chalcis 

Oriental          received  orientalizing  tendencies  through  trade  with 

Ionia  and   the  East.     In  time  the  geometrical  style 

disappeared  entirely,  leaving  as  its  legacy  to  Greek  art  the  ability 

1  The  use  of  the  word  "  wheel "  may  not  be  exact,  but  certainly  the  engrav- 
ing was  done  by  means  of  rapid  rotation.  The  instrument  used  was  probably 
of  some  relatively  soft  metal,  and  the  actual  cutting  was  done  with  moist 
emery  sand  or  some  other  similar  hard,  gritty  matter,  though  diamond  dust, 
which  is  used  in  modern  times,  may  not  have  been  employed  by  the  ancients. 
The  exact  method  by  which  the  rotation  was  produced  is  not  known  with 
certainty,  but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  stone  to  be  engraved  was  firmly 
embedded  in  plaster,  and  the  tool,  with  its  cutting  sand,  was  made  to  rotate 
by  means  of  a  bow,  the  string  of  which  was  passed  round  the  shaft  of  the 
tool.  The  gem  cutter  could  move  the  bow  to  and  fro  with  one  hand,  thus 
causing  the  tool  to  rotate  rapidly,  while  with  the  other  hand  he  could  hold 
and  direct  the  cutting  end  of  the  tool.  In  modern  times,  the  rotating 
instrument  is  fixed  in  a  lathe,  and  the  artist  holds  the  stone  in  his  hand. 
The  rotation  of  the  instrument  is  produced  by  a  treadle  or  by  some  power 
such  as  electricity.  It  is  possible  that  the  treadle  was  used  in  ancient  times, 
in  which  case  the  rotating  instrument  must  have  been  fixed  and  the  stone 
movable,  as  is  the  case  in  our  own  day,  but  the  other  method  suggested  is 
more  probable,  as  the  ancients  do  not  seem  to  have  been  familiar  with  the 
use  of  the  belt  for  the  transmission  of  power  or  motion  from  one  wheel  to 
another.  The  rotating  tools  employed  by  the  ancients  in  the  best  periods  of 
art  were  of  various  shapes  and  often  of  extreme  fineness,  capable  of  cutting 
even  the  most  delicate  lines.  Some  details  were  occasionally  added  by  hand 
with  a  diamond  point. 


ENGRAVED   GEMS  383 

to  disregard  what  is  merely  casual,  the  feeling  for  the  essential,  and 
clearness  and  conciseness  in  representation.  The  few  and  slight 
remains  of  Mycenaean  traditions  in  art  which  had  survived,  espe- 
cially in  the  islands  and  in  Asia  Minor,  acquire  fresh  importance 
in  the  orientalizing  style.  But  whereas  in  Mycenaean  art  orien- 
tal and  Egyptian  elements  were  assimilated  and  absorbed,  they 
are  now  directly  imitated,  notably  in  the  case  of  the  palmette  and 
the  lotus.  These  changes  and  tendencies,  which  are  general  in 
Greek  art  at  this  time,  are  even  more  clearly  traceable  in  bronzes 
and  vases  than  in  gems. 

At  Melos,  some  scarabs  of  "  Egyptian  faience "  and  some 
stones  of  Mycenaean  shapes  have  been  found,  which  are  ascribed 
to  the  seventh  century.  They  are  for  the 
most  part  soft  stones,  engraved  by  hand, 
though  some  are  hard  stones,  engraved  with 
the  wheel.  They  are  frequently  engraved  on 
both  sides.  The  designs  are  often  animals 
in  decorative,  rather  than  natural,  attitudes 
and  more  conventional  in  style  than  those  on 
Mycenaean  gems.  As  is  the  case  on  the  FIG.  299. —Steatite 
orientalizing  vases,  horses,  ibexes,  and  other  gem.  Melos.  (Furtw. 
animals  are  represented  with  upturned,  curved,  Ant' Gem' P1' V- 17'^ 
and  pointed  wings  (Fig.  299).  The  Chimaera,  the  Gorgon,  and  the 
fish  deity  (a  human  form  with  the  tail  of  a  fish  instead  of  legs) 
occur.  The  centaur  and  the  fish  deity  are  seen  in  conflict  with 
Heracles.  On  one  stone  Prometheus  is  represented.  Scenes  of 
no  mythological  import  also  occur ;  for  instance,  a  chariot  with 
four  horses  and  a  driver.  Plants  and  indeed  any  forms  not  of 
animal  nature,  are  rare  on  these  Melian  gems.  Stones  with  de- 
signs similar  to  those  on  the  Melian  gems,  but  of  various  shapes, 
including  the  cylinder,  are  found  in  a  number  of  places,  even  as 
far  east  as  Babylonia  and  India.  Egyptian  scarabs  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world ;  scaraboids  also  occur,  and 
metal  rings  with  engraved  bezels  were  again  in  use  in  the  seventh 
century,  as  they  had  been  in  Mycenaean  times.  In  general,  how- 


384  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

ever,  the  engraved  gems  of  the  seventh  century  are  neither  very 
numerous  nor  very  important. 

In  the  geometrical  period  and  the  seventh  century  the  use  of  the 
wheel  had  been  lost,  but  increased  intercourse  with  Assyria  led  to 

Archaic  tne  ^introduction  of  this  technique,  and  at  the  same 
style.  Ionic  time  the  sources  of  good,  hard  stones  became  known 
again.  The  technique  was  without  doubt  derived  from  Assyria,  for 
it  had  died  out  at  this  time  in  Egypt,  but  the  form  now  used  by 
the  Greeks  is  the  scarab,  which  is  derived  from  Egypt.  The  scar- 
aboid  is  also  used,  and  a  few  other  forms  occur.  Since  the  beetle 
had  no  significance  for  the  Greeks,  the  rounded  back  of  the  scarab 
was  sometimes  not  finished  with  wings.  The  engraved  gems  of  the 
geometric  period,  and  probably  most  of  those  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, were  intended  to  be  worn  simply  as  amulets,  but  by  the  sixth 
century  the  custom  of  sealing  had  become  common  in  Greece,  and 
the  engraved  gem  was  no  longer  a  mere  amulet.  The  scarab  is 
now  a  seal.  Occasionally  an  inscription  gives  the  name  of  the 
owner  or,  more  seldom,  of  the  artist.  The  names  of  only  two  art- 
ists are  preserved  in  this  way,  Syries,  probably  from  Euboea,  and 
Epimenes,  of  Paros.  The  choice  of  the  subject  for  representation 
on  archaic  gems  is  absolutely  free.  Often  it  has  religious  sig- 
nificance, perhaps  in  many  cases  where  we  are  unable  to  detect  it. 
The  types  are  generally  Ionic,  and  probably  the  work  is  also  Ionic 
for  the  most  part.  Mnesarchus,  of  Samos,  the  father  of  Pythagoras, 
was  a  gem  cutter,  and  the  famous  ring  of  Polycrates  was  made 
by  Theodoras  of  Samos.  These  early  Ionic  gems  are  probably 
more  or  less  influenced  by  Phoenician  art. 

Metal  rings  with  engraved  bezels  have  been  found  in  considerable 
numbers  in  Italy,  especially  in  Etruria.  They  are  Ionic  in  style 
Metal  rings  and  exhibit  strong  Phoenician  (that  is,  oriental  and 
in  Etruria  Egyptian)  traits.  The  bezel  is  oblong,  like  the  Egyp- 
tian cartouche,  and  its  greatest  length  is  across  the  finger,  not,  as 
in  Mycenaean  rings,  lengthwise  of  the  finger.  Scenes  with  chariots, 
(Fig.  300)  which  are  well  adapted  to  fill  an  oblong  field,  are  com- 
mon on  these  rings^  as  in  Ionic  vase-paintings  found  in  Italy,  and 


ENGRAVED   GEMS 


385 


FIG.  300'.  —  Etruscan 
bezel.  (Furtw.  Ant. 
Gem.  PI.  VII,  4.) 


winged  figures,  spirits,  pegasi,  sirens,  and  sphinxes  are  among  the 
favorite  subjects.  Sometimes  the  figures  are  not  engraved,  but  are 
pressed  in  the  metal,  which  is  then  very  thin. 
These  rings  are  probably  the  work  of  Ionian 
immigrants,  though  some  of  them  may  be 
imitations  made  by  Etruscans.  They  are 
virtually  confined  to  Etruria,  and  few  en- 
graved metal  rings  of  the  archaic  period  are 
found  in  any  other  region.  Comparatively 
few  engraved  stones  of  this  period  are  found  in  Etruria,  and 
these  are  not  different  from  those  found  elsewhere. 

Most  of  the  early  archaic  Greek  gems  are  small  scarabs  or  scara- 
boids,  though  some  of  the  scaraboids  attain  a  greater  size.  The 
back  of  the  scarab  is  occasionally  adorned  with  a  relief,  Archaic 
and  its  flat  side  is  entirely  occupied  by  the  design,  which  gems 
is  surrounded  by  a  border.  The  favorite  stones  are  the  colored 
quartzes,  though  amethyst  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
employed.  Occasionally  glass  paste  is  used 
instead  of  stone.  These  hard  materials  are 
engraved  with  the  wheel,  and  the  soft  stones 
engraved  by  hand  gradually  disappear.  The 
designs  consist  of  human  figures  (Fig.  301) 
and  animals.  Some  of  the  early  archaic  gems, 
many  of  which  are  from  Sardinia  and  Cyprus, 
show  strong  Phoenician  traits,  and  are  prob- 
ably the  work  of  Hellenized  Phoenicians  or  of  Greeks  who  catered 
to  the  taste  of  Phoenician  customers  (Fig.  302). 
The  other  Greek  gems  of  this  period  are  for 
the  most  part  products  of  Ionic  art,  though 
not  all  are  necessarily  made  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
some  are  probably  of  Peloponnesian  origin. 
The  attitudes  of  the  human  figures  are  few  and 
stiff,  and  among  them  the  kneeling  posture,  intended  to  repre- 
sent rapid  running,  is  especially  common.  The  muscles  are,  as  a 
rule,  imperfectly  rendered. 


FIG.  301 .  —  A  r  c  ti  a  i  c 
scaraboid.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  Gem.  PI.  VI, 
38.) 


FlG.  302.  —  A  rchaic 
gem.  (Furtw.  Ant. 
Gem.  PI.  VII ,38.) 


GREEK    ARCH. — 2C 


386 


§ 


FIG.  303.  —  Hermes. 
(Furtw.  Ant.  Gem. 
PI.  VIII,  37-) 


About  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  a  great  improvement  takes 
place,  in  which  Ionian,  Attic,  Aeginetan,  and  probably  also  other 
artists  have  a  share ;  and  the  improvement  in  execution  is  accom- 
Motives  of  panied  by  the  introduction  of  many  new  motives.  Rep- 
archaic  gems  resentations  of  the  great  gods  are  rare,  but  the  nude 
Apollo,  Artemis,  with  and  without  wings,  as  goddess  of  animals, 
Hermes  (Fjg.  303)  as  messenger  of  the  gods  and  (in  long  garments) 
probably  as  a  god  of  the  nether  world,  and 
Athena  are  found.  The  figure  of  religious  sig- 
nificance most  frequently  represented  on  ar- 
chaic gems  is  Heracles.  He  appears  often  in 
kneeling  posture,  with  bow  and  club,  also 
striding,  with  raised  club  and  outstretched 
bow ;  he  is  represented  with  a  lion,  with  Ache- 
lous,  with  Cerberus,  and  contending  with 
Apollo  for  the  tripod.  Theseus,  with  Ariadne  and  the  Minotaur, 
Odysseus  under  the  ram,  and  a  few  other  scenes 
from  heroic  myths  occur.  More  frequent  are 
the  representations  of  lesser  divinities  and  dae- 
mones.  Among  these  are  Gorgons  (Fig.  304)  ; 
divinities  of  human  shape,  but  with  the  heads  of 
lions,  bulls,  or  other  beasts,  and  often  furnished 
with  wings ;  Silenus  (Fig.  305)  who  is  repre- 
sented with  a  cantharus,  kneel- 
ing, reclining,  or  dancing,  but 
always  with  the  ears  and  tail 
of  a  horse  and  a  great,  bushy 
beard ;  Sirens ;  Harpies ;  a  winged  male  figure 
usually  interpreted  as  Eros,  and  a  winged 
female  figure,  probably  Nike.  Supernatural 
beasts  are  also  favorite  subjects.  Among  these 
the  sphinx  is  very  common,  the  griffin  less 
usual ;  the  winged  lion,  the  winged  boar,  the 
sea  horse,  and  various  fantastic  combinations  are  found.  Real 
beasts  are  also  frequently  depicted,  such  as  lions  (Fig.  306),  bulls, 


FIG.  304. — Gorgon, 
from  Kertch. 
(Furtw.  Ant. 
Gem.  PI.  VIII, 
52.) 


FIG.  305.  —  Silenus, 
scarab.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  Gem.  PI. 
VIII,  4.) 


ENGRAVED  GEMS  387 

rams,  and  deer.     Sometimes  one   animal  occupies  the   entire 

field  of  the  seal,  sometimes  a  lion  appears  pulling  down  a  bull  or 

fighting  with  a  boar,  and  sometimes  beasts 

are  arranged   in   oriental,  heraldic   fashion. 

Human  figures,  with  no  mythological  or  reli- 
gious significance,  are  represented  in  various 

attitudes  and  activities  (Figs.  307,  308),  the 

figure  of  a  youthful  warrior  (Fig.  307)  being  FIG.  306.— Lion, scarab. 

especially  common   toward   the  end  of  the       ym^sO*''  ^  "* 

archaic  period.     A  man  on  horseback  is  not 

infrequently  represented,  and  the  quadriga  is  a  well-known  subject. 

Human   heads,  especially  those   of  warriors,  not  susceptible  of 

any  mythological  or  religious  interpretation,  are  common.     Some 
scarabs,  found  especially 
at  Carthage  and  in  Sar- 
dinia, exhibit  the  tech- 
nical   qualities    of    the 

FIG. 307.— Youthful      Greek  gems  of  this  pe-      FlG-    308.— Man    and 

warrior.     (Furtw.         .  .  horse.      (Furtw.  Ant. 

Ant.  Gem.  Pi.  IX,      riod,  but  motives  either          GeMm   P1.    IX,   J4.) 
4.)  purely     Phoenician    or         Inscr.  'Biri^es  eirww. 

only  in  part  Hellenic.     Such  scarabs  were  not  worn  by  Greeks, 
and  if  they  are  actually  of  Greek  workmanship,  they  are  the  work 
of  Greeks  whose  choice  of  subjects  was  governed  by  local  demands. 
In  style  the  gems  of  the  archaic  period  resemble  the  contem- 
porary coins,  and,  like  these,  they  reproduce  in  miniature  the 
progress  of  sculpture.     In  the  early  part  of  the  pe-   _,  j     . 
riod,  stiffness  and  even  awkwardness  of  posture,  accom-  archaic 
panied  by  evident  lack  of  knowledge  of  anatomy,  are  period 
noticeable  in  the  representation  of  the  nude  human  form,  the  folds 
of  drapery  are  rendered  by  simple  parallel  lines,  and  muscles  are 
imperfectly  and  incorrectly  reproduced.     But  after  500  B.C.   the 
knowledge  of  anatomy  that  is  displayed  in  the  sculptures  from 
Aegina  and  in  other  works  of  the  time  is  evident  also  in  the  gems. 
The  muscles  are  sometimes  exaggerated,  the  postures   are   not 
always  graceful,  and  the  treatment  of  drapery,  when  it  occurs,  is 


J 

i 


388  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

not  yet  perfect ;  but  before  the  archaic  period  is  passed,  about 
470  or  460  B.C.,  the  Greek  gem  cutters,  as  well  as  the  sculptors, 
have  attained  such  knowledge  and  such  technical  skill  that  the 
transition  to  the  freer  and  more  perfect  art  of  the  following  period 
involves  nothing  more  than  the  abandonment  of  the  lingering 
remnants  of  the  earlier  severity  of  style. 

To  the  end  of  the  archaic  period  and  the  earlier  part  of  the 
period  of  the  free  style  an  interesting  series  of  gems  is  to  be 
Persian-  ascribed,  on  which  Greek  artists  have  represented 
Greek  gems  Persian  subjects.  These  stones  have  been  found  in 
the  greatest  number  at  Kertch.  On  the  earlier  stones  the  repre- 
sentations are  purely  Persian,  though  the  style  is  Greek,  while  in 
the  later  specimens  the  Persian  qualities  are  less  pronounced. 
The  stones  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder  have  very  seldom  any  figures 
not  purely  Persian,  and  those  in  the  form  of  a  cone  or  bevelled 
cone  have  usually  purely  Persian  figures.  This  last  form  is  not 
very  common.  The  most  usual  form  is  the  scaraboid,  and  an- 
other favorite  form  is  a  rectangular  bevelled  or  faceted  stone, 
pierced  lengthwise.  The  material  is  usually  bluish  chalcedony, 
but  other  stones,  as  well  as  glass,  are  also  employed.  The 
work  is  often,  though  not  always,  careless. 
In  the  later  Graeco-Persian  gems  the  figures 
have  a  vacant  space  about  them  and  no 
border,  not  even  a  line.  The  types  repre- 
sented are  a  Persian  king  or  grandee  with 
FlG  "^Persian-  n^s  ^°^owers  or  conquered  foes,  or  both;  a 

Greek  gem.  (Furtw.      mounted  Persian  in  conflict  with  a  lion ;  a 

Ant.  Gem.  Pi.  XI,  8.)  persian  fighting  with  a  Greek,  Persian  ladies, 
various  hunting  scenes  (Fig.  309)  ;  sometimes,  though  seldom, 
single  human  figures ;  and  on  some  of  the  later  stones  single  ani- 
mals. Winged  animals,  especially  griffins  and  other  hybrid  forms, 
are  common.  These  gems  were  evidently  made  for  Persians,  and 
are  Greek  only  in  style  and  execution. 

Purely  Greek  gems,  that  is,  gems  made  by  and  for  Greeks,  of 
the  free  style,  belonging  to  the  period  before  Alexander  the  Great, 


ENGRAVED   GEMS  389 

are  comparatively  few.  The  scarab  diminishes  in  popularity,  and 
is  hardly  to  be  found  after  the  fifth  century.  The  most  common 
form  is  the  scaraboid,  but  the  forms  that  were  in  use  Forms  of 
in  later  times  begin  to  appear.  The  engraving  begins  Greek  gems 
to  be  put  on  the  convex  side  of  the  stone,  and  when  this  is  the 
case  the  convexity  is  slight.  Some  stones  are  engraved  on  both 
sides.  Gems  not  pierced,  but  intended  to  be  set  in  rings,  are  not 
uncommon,  at  least  in  the  fourth  century.  At  Polis  tis  Chrysokou, 
in  Cyprus,  rings  have  been  found  which  were  evidently  intended 
to  serve  as  settings  for  gems,  though  the  gems  themselves  are 
lost,  and  at  the  same  place  unpierced  gems  set  in  gold  and  silver 
were  found.  These  were,  however,  to  be  worn  as  pendants,  neck- 
laces, and  the  like,  not  as  rings.  Occasionally  entire  rings  are 
cut  from  stones.  The  cylinder  (sometimes  with  a  flat  side  on 
which  are  no  figures)  is  not  uncommon  in  the  fifth  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  fourth  century;  pierced,  faceted  rectangular  stones, 
rather  long  rectangular  stones,  with  figures  on  one  or  on  four 
sides,  and  a  few  other  shapes,  such  as  the  cone,  were  also  adopted. 
In  the  fifth  century  a  border  of  fine  lines  sometimes  encircles  the 
gem,  but  no  such  border  is  found  on  later  gems.  The  stone  most 
frequently,  though  not  exclusively,  employed  is  chalcedony,  and 
glass  is  also  of  frequent  occurrence. 

In  the  entire  period  before  Alexander,  most  seals  worn  as  rings 
on  the  finger  were  of  metal — bronze,  silver,  and  gold.  The  bronze 
and  silver  engraved  seals  are  for  the  most  part  ruined  by  oxida- 
tion, but  a  few  have  recognizable  figures,  which  in  some  instances 
recall  statues  of  the  period.  Gold  seals  are  well  preserved.  They 
have  oval  bezels,  which  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  period  are  long 
and  more  or  less  pointed,  but  as  time  goes  on  tend  more  and 
more  toward  the  circular  form.  Rings  of  electrum  are  of  eastern 
(Ionic)  origin ;  for  electrum  was  found  in  Asia  Minor.  The  rings 
themselves  have  been  found  in  southern  Russia,  Cyprus,  and  Sicily, 
and  on  two  of  them  are  inscriptions  in  Ionic  dialect.  Both  of 
these  rings  belong  to  the  fifth  century.  Some  gold  rings,  appar- 
ently of  the  time  before  450  B.C.,  exhibit  the  severe  style  of  that 


390 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


period,  others  the  style  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  century,  and 
still  others  that  of  the  fourth  century. 

Very  few  Greek  gems  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  are  found 
in  Italy,  for  the  Etruscans  made  their  own  gems  after  the  end  of  the 

sixth  century.  A  few  gems  of  Greek  style  found,  and 
Greek  gems  perhaps  made,  in  Italy  closely  resemble  those  found  in 
before  Alex-  continental  Greece.  Of  the  gems  found  in  continental 

Greece  many  are  Ionic  in  style,  though  some  of  them 
may  have  been  made  at  Athens.  They  exhibit  the  qualities  of 
Ionic  art  —  softness  of  outline,  breadth  and  liveliness  of  treatment, 
joined  with  a  lack  of  sharpness  in  detail.  The  works  of  Dexame- 
nus  of  Chios  do  not,  however,  belong  to  this  class,  in  spite  of  the 
Ionic  origin  of  that  artist.  His  clear  and  concise  design  and 
execution  show  the  influence  of  Attic  art.  Some  gems  exhibit 
the  Phidian  style,  and  this  style  spread  from  Athens  to  the  West. 
Phrygillus,  who  worked  at  Syracuse,  may  have  been  trained  at 
Athens.  He  is  known  as  a  coin  engraver,  and  his  name  is  read 
on  a  beautiful  gem  with  a  figure  of  Eros  half  kneeling  and  lean- 


FIG.  310.  —  Gem  by 
Phrygillus.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  G«*.P1.XIV. 
6.) 


FlG.  311.  —  Gem  prob- 
ably by  Evaenetus. 
(Furtw.  Ant.  Gem. 
PI.  IX,  49.) 


FIG.  312.  —  Gem  by 
Olympius.  (Fuitw. 
Ant.  Gem.  PI.  XIV, 
8.) 


ing  forward  with  his  hand  on  the  ground  (Fig.  310).  A  fine  gem 
with  a  representation  of  Heracles  and  the  Nemean  lion  (Fig.  311) 
is  probably  by  Evaenetus,  as  it  agrees  in  style  and  design  with 
Syracusan  coins  by  that  artist  and  his  rival  Cimon.  It  must  be 
assigned  to  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
century.  Olympius,  whose  name  is  inscribed  in  very  small  letters 
on  a  gem  engraved  with  a  graceful  and  delicate  figure  of  Eros 
shooting  with  a  bow  (Fig.  312),  is  probably  identical  with  the 


ENGRAVED   GEMS 


39 i 


artist  of  some  Arcadian  coins  of  about  370  B.C., 
on  which  the  seated  figure  of  Pan  is  represented. 
To  about  the  same  date  belongs  an  exquisite  gem 
on  which  a  half  nude  figure  of  Nike  arranging  a 
trophy  is  seen  (Fig.  313).  This  gem  is  signed, 
but  the  characters  of  the  signature  are  so  small 
and  faint  that  the  name  Onatas  can  be  assigned 
to  the  artist  only  by  conjecture. 

The  only  artist  whose  progress  can  be  traced 
through  several  works  is  Dexamenus.    His  earliest 
signed  work  represents  a  seated  woman  before 
whom  stands  a  maid  holding  a  mirror  in  her  right  hand  and  a 
wreath  in  her  left   (Fig.  314).     The  design  is  not 
original,  as  it  is  often  found  on  Attic  vases  of  the  fifth 
century  and  on  gravestones.    There  are  traces  of  the  severe  style, 


FIG.  313.  —  Gem 
by  Onatas  (?). 
(Furtw.  Ant. 
Gem.  PI .  XIII, 
37-) 


FIG.  316. 


FIG.  318. 


FlGS.  314-318.  —  Gems  by  Dexamenus.     (Furtw.  Ant.  Gem.  PI.  XIV,  i,  20, 4,2, 3.) 

and  the  field  is  surrounded  by  a  border  of  little  lines.  The  prob- 
able date  of  this  fine  gem  is  about  450  to  440  B.C.,  and  the 
figure  of  a  harp  player  (Fig.  315),  which  is  closely  related  to  it 
in  style,  belongs  to  the  same  period.  The  next  signed  work 
is  an  exquisitely  wrought  heron  with  a  grasshopper.  Here  the 


392  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

stone  is  still  encircled  with  the  border  of  lines,  but  there  are  no 
traces  of  severity  of  style.  The  fully  developed  style  of  Dexam- 
enus  is  seen  in  the  representation  of  a  flying  heron  (Fig.  316). 
Here  the  execution  is  of  extreme  delicacy,  the  border  of  little 
lines  is  replaced  by  a  single  line  round  the  edge  of  the  gem, 
and  the  inscription,  instead  of  following  the  curved  edge  of  the 
stone,  is  arranged  in  two  lines.  A  flying  goose  on  another  gem 
(Fig.  317)  is  probably  by  Dexamenus,  though  the  execution  is 
not  quite  so  fine  as  that  of  the  flying  heron,  and  there  is  no  in- 
scription. The  fourth  signed  gem  has,  like  the  gem  with  the  flying 
heron,  a  single  fine  line  as  a  border,  and  the  inscription  is  arranged 
in  two  lines.  The  design  is  the  portrait  of  a  bearded  man,  and 
the  artist's  delicacy  of  taste  as  well  as  of  workmanship  is  admira- 
bly exhibited  (Fig.  318).  The  details  are  clearly  and  carefully 
wrought,  but  are  not  carried  to  excess.  If  the  date  assigned  to 
the  first  of  the  signed  gems  by  Dexamenus  is  correct,  this  last 
work  was  probably  executed  as  late  as  430  B.C.,  or  even  a  few 
years  later.  A  few  unsigned  gems  are  attributed  to  Dexamenus 
on  grounds  of  style,  but  these  attributions  are  by  no  means  certain. 
The  variety  of  representations  on  gems  of  the  period  that 
extends  from  about  460  B.C.  to  the  time  of  Alexander  is  very 
Variety  of  great-  Figures  of  gods  and  heroes  are  far  from  un- 
types  usual,  but  real  human  beings  are  most  frequently  repre- 
sented. Among  the  divine  figures,  Aphrodite,  Eros,  and  Nike  are 
favorites.  The  coin  types  at  this  time  tend  toward  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  great  deities,  the  official  gods 
of  the  Greek  cities,  but  the  tendency  of  the 
ring  types  is  in  the  opposite  direction.  Fig- 
ures of  animals  are  not  uncommon,  and  some- 
times they  are  very  fine.  The  exquisite 
FIG.  319. —  Gem  of  herons  by  Dexamenus  can  hardly  be  sur- 

fourth      century.  j        .-,  e 

(Furtw.  Ant.  Gem.    Passed.     Groups  of  persons  are  also  repre- 

Pi.  IX,  53.)  sented,  and  chariots  with  horses,  like  those 

on  Syracusan  coins,  are  seen  on  several  gems  (Fig.  319).     The 

fantastic  combinations  of  parts  of  different  animals,  which  were 


ENGRAVED   GEMS  393 

common  in  the  earlier  periods,  are  now  comparatively  rare.  In- 
scriptions occur  more  frequently  on  gems  of  this  period  than  in 
earlier  times.  Some  of  these  designate  the  owner,  others  the 
artist,  others  explain  the  representation,  and  two  inscriptions 
(8u>pov  and  x0"/36)  indicate  that  the  gem  is  a  gift  and  offer  a  greet- 
ing to  the  person  who  receives  it  or  a  letter  or  other  missive  sealed 
with  it.  The  signatures  of  artists  are  always  unobtrusive  and  in 
small  characters,  like  the  signatures  on  coins. 

The  dates  of  the  gems  are  determined  in   great  measure  by 
their  style,  in  some  cases  also   by   the  forms  of  the  letters  of 
the  inscriptions,  in  many  by  the  choice  of  subject. 
Those  of  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  still  show 
traces  of  severity  of  style,  those  of  the  latter  part  of  that  century 
exhibit,  in  spite  of  their  small  size,  the  dignity  and  grandeur  of 
the  great  art  of  the  time,  together  with  the 
greatest  perfection  of  workmanship,  and  those 
of  the  fourth  century   (Figs.  319,  320)  con- 
tinue to  show  consummate  technical  skill  and 
the  utmost  grace  of  design,  but  lack  something 
of  the  power,  dignity,  and  pure  beauty  of  the 
works  of  the  fifth  century.     In  the  second  half 

of  the  fifth  century  seated  figures  in  three- 

,  .,,  .       FIG.  320.  — Gem   of 
quarter  view,  which  shows  the  artist  s  skill  in         fourth       century. 

foreshortening,    are    favorites.     In   general,  a         (Furtw.  Ant.  Gem. 

,     °'      .       „.    ^  .     ,    .  ,  '  Pi.  XIV,  22.) 

round,  soft,  plastic  effect  is  desired,  and  the 

lines,  however  long  and  fine,  are  not  hard  nor  sharp.  The  round- 
headed  drill  is  little  used,  and  the  contrast  between  lines  made 
with  such  a  drill  and  those  made  with  a  sharp  point  is  avoided. 

This  was  the  period  of  great  sculpture,  and  it  is  natural  that 
the  art  of  the  gem  cutter  occupied  a  humble  place,  though  at  no 
period  were  more  beautiful  gems  produced,  either  in  technical 
execution  or  in  composition  and  design.  In  the  Mycenaean 
epoch,  when  great  sculpture  had  apparently  developed  but  little, 
and  in  the  late  times,  when  great  art  fell  away  and  lost  its  creative 
power,  the  art  of  gem  cutting  was  relatively  more  important. 


394  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

In  the  Hellenistic  period  Greek  art  was  more  widely  spread 
and  less  local  and  national  than  in  earlier  times.  General  artistic 
tendencies  are  traceable,  but  the  details  of  the  development  of 
any  branch  of  art  cannot  always  be  distinguished.  It  is  therefore 
not  always  possible  to  determine  whether  certain  works  belong 
to  this  period  (the  third  and  second  centuries  B.C.)  or  to  the 
Hellenistic-Roman  period,  when  Greek  art  had  become  the  art 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  the  difficulty  of  deciding  in  doubtful 
instances  is,  if  possible,  even  greater  in  the  case  of  gems  than  in 
that  of  works  of  sculpture. 

The  gems  are  now  for  the  most  part  flat  and  thin,  like  the 
stones  in  modern  seal  rings,  and  for  the  same  reason,  because 
Forms  of  ^^  are  mten^ed  to  be  set  in  rings  for  use  as  seals. 
Hellenistic  Such  stones  are  naturally  not  pierced.  Occasional 
gems  scarabs,  probably  of  Alexandrian  origin,  are  engraved 

with  Egyptian  symbols  and  are  not  of  very  good  workmanship. 
One  such  scarab  is  adorned  with  a  sphinx  in  relief;  it  is,  then, 
really  a  cameo.1  Engraved  cylinders  are  no  longer  made,  but 
some  long,  four-sided  pierced  stones  occur,  and  various  other 
forms,  pierced  for  use  as  pendants  or  parts  of  chains,  are  also 
found,  but  are  not  common.  The  scaraboid  begins  to  disappear 
toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  develops,  or  degen- 
erates, into  the  thin,  unpierced,  but  convex  seal  stone,  which  is 
common  in  the  Hellenistic  period,  alongside  of  the  seal  with  a 
flat  surface.  The  stones  are  sometimes  of  great  size,  and  their 
settings  are  correspondingly  broad,  but  to  avoid  excessive  weight 
are  frequently  made  hollow. 

The  favorite  stones  are  chalcedony,  carbuncle,  garnet,  beryl, 

topaz,  amethyst,  crystal,  carnelian,  and  sardonyx.     Glass  is  also 

frequently  employed,  and  is  no  longer  white,  as  in 

the   previous  period,  but  green,  yellowish,  brown,  or 

violet,  and   occasionally  the   glass  seals   are    engraved  with  the 

•*•  Gems  on  which  the  design  stands  out  in  relief  are  called  cameos,  those 
with  the  design  cut  in  so  that  an  impression  made  from  the  stone  receives  fhe 
design  in  relief  are  called  intaglios. 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


395 


Cameos 


wheel,  not  cast  from  impressions  made  from  engraved  stones. 
Rings  entirely  of  metal,  with  engraved  bezels,  are  comparatively 
rare.  Technically,  the  gems  exhibit  remarkable  softness  and 
delicacy  of  forms,  and  at  the  same  time  sharp  delineation  of 
details.  In  the  most  careful  work,  the  engraved  design,  as  well 
as  the  smooth  surface  of  the  stone,  is  highly  polished. 

The  most  important  innovation  of  the  Hellenistic  period  is  the 
invention  and  development  of  cameos,  which  are  never  found  in 
graves  of  a  time  earlier  than  the  third  century  B.C. 
The  origin  of  cameos  is  not  due  to  a  desire  for  im- 
provement in  rings ;  for  the  engraved  gems  set  in  rings  were  used 
as  seals,  a  purpose  for  which  cameos  are  far  less  well  adapted  than 
intaglios.  The  cameos  were 
to  be  used  merely  as  adorn- 
ments, to  be  worn  as  pen- 
dants, earrings,  necklaces, 
and  the  like,  or  to  be  set 
in  drinking  cups,  crowns, 
or  articles  for  toilet  use. 

Hellenistic  cameos  are 
almost  without  exception 
made  from  sardonyx  of  dif- 
ferent colored  layers,  the 
number  of  which  varies 
from  two  to  eight  or  even 
nine.  The  greatest  skill  is 
often  shown  in  cutting  the 
design  in  such  a  way  as  to 
produce  the  richest  and  most  varied  effect  by  the  alternation  of  the 
light  and  dark  colors  of  the  stone.  A  few  cameos  have  Egyptian 
figures,  though  their  execution  is  purely  Greek.  The  chief  cen- 
tres of  cameo  cutting  at  this  time  were  Alexandria  and  Antioch. 
One  of  the  masterpieces  of  Hellenistic  cameo  cutting  is  the  so- 
called  "Tazza  Farnese,"  a  shallow  dish,  0.20  m.  in  diameter  (Figs. 
321,  322.)  On  one  side  is  a  superb  head  of  Medusa,  on  the  other 


FIG.  321.  —  Tazza  Farnese.     (Furtw.  Ant. 
Gem.  PI.  LIV.) 


396 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


a  symbolical  representation  of  deities  of  agriculture  and  fruitful 
ness,  probably  Triptolemus,  Euthenia  (the  wife  of  the  Nile),  the 
daughters  of  the  Nile,  and  two  wind  gods,  grouped  before  the 


FIG.  322.  — Tazza  Farnese.     (Furtw.  Ant,  Gem.  PI.  LV.) 

god  of  the  Nile,  the  giver  of  all  fertility  to  Egypt.  An  equally 
remarkable  piece  of  work,  though  by  no  means  so  attractive,  is 
the  so-called  "  coupe  des  Ptolemees,"  which  is  in  all  probability 
Hellenistic  in  date.  This  is  a  great,  two-handled  cup,  all  of  one 
piece  of  sardonyx.  On  both  sides  is  engraved  all  the  apparatus 


ENGRAVED   GEMS 


397 


of  a  banquet  —  table,  cups,  dishes,  Bacchic  masks,  curtains,  a  statu- 
ette, a  herm,  and  at  each  side  of  the  scene  a  tree  that  spreads 
its  branches  over  the  instruments  of  festivity.  This  is  a  most 
brilliant  example  of  the  cameo  cutter's  art,  and  bears  eloquent 


FlG.  323.  —  Coupe  des  Ptolemees.     (Furtw.  Ant.  Gem.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  157.) 

testimony  to  the  love  of  ostentation  to  which  that  art  owes  its 
existence  (Fig.  323).  Among  the  various  smaller  cameos  of 
this  period  several  are  portraits  of  kings  and  princes,  others 
represent  deities,  and,  in  general,  the  designs  resemble  those 
of  the  contemporary  intaglios.  Three 
cameo  cutters  are  known  by  their  signa- 
tures on  their  works.  Athenion  is  the 
artist  of  a  cameo  on  which  Zeus  is  rep- 
resented in  conflict  with  the  giants,  a 
work  which  challenges  comparison  with 
the  frieze  of  the  great  altar  at  Pergamon 
(Fig-  324),  and  another  work  of  Athe-  FIG.  324.  -  Cameo  by  Athe- 
nion is  known  by  two  fragments  of  an- 
cient glass  casts.  Here  a  ruler,  per- 
haps Eumenes  II  of  Pergamon,  is  represented,  with  Athena 
acting  as  his  charioteer.  A  gem  signed  by  Boethus  represents 


nion.     (Furtw.  Ant.  Gem. 
PI.  LVII,  2.) 


398 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


the  lame  Philoctetes,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  realism,  a  quality 
for  which  Hellenistic  gems  are  not  always  distinguished.  Pro- 
tarchus  is  known  by  two  signed  cameos,  on  one  of  which  Eros 
is  represented  riding  a  lion,  on  the  other  Aphrodite  with  Eros. 
Many  cameos  with  mythological  representations  are  undoubtedly 
Hellenistic  in  design,  and  Hellenistic  execution  is  probable  in 
the  case  of  a  great  number  of  these,  though  it  is  hard,  or  perhaps 
impossible,  to  prove  that  they  were  not  actually  made  in  Roman 
times. 

In  style  the  Hellenistic  gems,  both  intaglios  and  cameos,  exhibit 
in  miniature  the  qualities  of  Hellenistic  sculpture.  They  continue 
St  1  of  anc^  Develop,  even  to  exaggeration,  the  tendencies  of 
Hellenistic  earlier  artists,  the  softness  and  tenderness  of  Praxiteles, 
gems  the  pathos  and  passion  of  Scopas,  and  the  realism  of 

Lysippus  and  his  followers.  Pathos,  the  expression  of  pain,  is  seen 
in  a  number  of  heads  of  Medusa,  among  them  that  of  the  "  Tazza 

Farnese "  ;    action    and 

passion  in  such  gems  as 

that  signed  by  Athenion, 

which    represents    Zeus 

and  the  giants,  and  also 

in  some  portraits.    More 

frequently  noticeable  is 

the  Praxitelean  tendency 

to  the  representation  of 

figures  leaning  in  easy, 

graceful  postures  on  col- 
umns or  other  supports, 
and  to  the  delicate  treatment  of  rounded  nude  forms,  whether 
female,  male,  or  infantile  (Fig.  325).  Even  in  portrait  heads  the 
same  tendency  is  visible.  At  the  same  time  there  is  great  sharp- 
ness in  details,  especially  in  the  rendering  of  the  hair,  whether  it 
be  smooth  or  disordered  (Fig.  326).  Even  the  hair  of  the  eye- 
brows is  sometimes  represented.  The  eyes  are  often  large  and 
wide  open,  with  the  iris  and  pupil  slightly  marked.  Sometimes 


FIG.  325. —  Hellen- 
istic gem.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  Gem.  PI. 
XXXIV,  19.) 


FIG.  326.  —  Hellenistic 
portrait  gem.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  Gem.  PI. 
XXXII,  18.) 


ENGRAVED   GEMS  399 

as  in  some  Hellenistic  sculptures,  the  eyes  are  set  in  deep  sockets 
to  give  passion  or  pathos  to  the  expression. 

A  special  class  of  gems  is  engraved  with  delicately  sketched  fig- 
ures in  which  the  design  is  not  polished  as  in  the  other  gems  of 
the  period.  They  are  not,  however,  to  be  mistaken  for  Archaistic 
unfinished  or  careless  work.  On  a  small  group  of  gems  gems 
early  types  of  deities  are  reproduced  in  an  archaistic  manner,  and 
the  imitation  of  the  classic  style  of  the  fifth  century  also  occurs. 
The  gems  that  exhibit  this  imitation  have  usually  a  border  of  little 
lines,  like  that  seen  on  gems  of  the  fifth  century,  but  they  cannot 
well  belong  to  that  time,  as  they  have  the  flat  form  usual  in  the 
Hellenistic  period.  On  the  other  hand,  their  style  is  fresher  and 
easier  than  that  of  the  cold  and  stiff  imitations  of  classic  art  pro- 
duced in  Roman  times.  The  very  convex  long  stones  usually  have 
only  one  figure,  most  frequently  leaning  in  an  easy  posture  on  a 
column  or  some  similar  support.  Most  of  these  motives  are  de- 
rived from  sculpture,  but  some  appear  to  be  taken  from  paint- 
ings, as  is  the  case  also  with  some  of  the  motives  occurring  on 
gems  of  other  shapes.  Busts,  not  mere  heads,  now  appear  on 
gems  for  the  first  time,  both  in  portraits  and 
ideal  representations.  These  cannot  be  re- 
productions of  sculptured  busts,  for  the  latter 
do  not  occur  before  Roman  times.  Heads, 
both  of  human  persons  and  of  gods,  are  fre- 
quently represented  in  full  front  face.  Re- 
plicas of  the  same  figure,  as  well  as  many 
similar  variants  of  favorite  types,  are  more 
or  less  frequently  met  with.  In  general,  in  FIG.  327.— Hellenistic 
gems,  as  in  the  products  of  other  branches  of  portrait  gem,  by  Ly- 
Hellenistic  art,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  An^Gfm.Plxxxu 
different  regions  or  schools  by  type  or  style.  31-) 

Among  the  designs  on  gems  of  this  period,  the  portraits  are  pe- 
culiarly interesting  and  often  remarkably  fine  (Figs. 

Portraits 
326,  327).    The  persons  represented  are  usually  kings 

and  rulers  and  their  wives.     The  portrait  of  Alexander  the  Great 


400 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


FIG.  328.  —  Woman 
bathing,  by  Sco- 
pas.  (Furtw.  Ant. 
Gem.  PI.  L.  13.) 


is  especially  common,  that  of  Mithridates  is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, and  portraits  of  several  of  the  Ptolemies  have  also  been 
identified.  Seals  with  portraits  of  great  men  were  worn  not  cnly 
by  the  persons  represented,  but  also  by  those  who  wished  to  be 
known  as  their  servants  and  admirers,  a  fact  that  accounts  for 
the  comparatively  great  number  of  seals  with  the  portraits  of  kings. 
Many  of  the  royal  personages  represented  are  as  yet  unidentified, 
and  the  portraits  on  many  seals  are  certainly  those  of  private  per- 
sons, some  of  whom  are  women  (generally  ideal- 
ized). That  Romans  also  are  represented  on 
Hellenistic  seals  is  not  remarkable  in  view  of 
the  relations  existing  at  this  time  between  Rome 
and  the  Hellenic  East. 

Scenes  from  life  are  not  very  numerous,  but 
the  lion  hunt,  perhaps  with  a  reminiscence  of 
the  famous  hunt  of  Alexander,  and  other  hunt- 
ing scenes  occur;  and  besides  these,  various 
idyllic  scenes  are  represented,  women  are  seen  reading  or  playing 
the  lyre,  and  a  few  other  similar  representations 
are  found  occasionally  (Figs.  328,  329).  The 
most  usual  mythological  motives  are  those  con- 
nected with  the  less  serious  deities,  especially 
Aphrodite  and  Dionysus.  These  two  deities  are 
themselves  very  common,  usually  represented 
leaning  on  a  pillar  or  the  like.  Eros  and  Psyche 
are  also  common  subjects  for  the  gem  cutter, 
but  Psyche  is  not  represented  with  the  wings  of 
a  bird,  as  a  mere  female  counterpart  of  Eros. 
As  is  natural  in  an  age  when  soft  and  voluptuous 
forms  were  popular,  the  Hermaphrodite  is  a  not  unusual  subject 
,  for  the  gem  cutters.  Egyptian  deities,  especially 
Hellenistic  Serapis  and  Isis,  are  frequently  represented,  and  thus 
gems  tne  gems  a(jd  their  testimony  to  the  popularity  and 

wide  diffusion  of  the  Egyptian  cults.     The  somewhat  abstract  dei- 
ties, Artemis  Tyche,  Artemis,  and  Agathe  Tyche,  as  well  as  some 


FIG.  329.  —  Muse, 
with  lyre,  by 
Onesas.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  Gem.  PI. 
XXXV,  23.) 


ENGRAVED   GEMS  401 

lesser  divinities  and  some  personifications  of  nature,  are  seen  on  a 
considerable  number  of  gems,  but  other  deities  are  comparatively 
unusual.  The  head  of  Medusa  is  popular  as  a  beautiful  and  easily 
understood  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  pathos.  Comparatively 
few  heroes  are  represented  on  Hellenistic  gems,  and  among  them 
Odysseus  is  perhaps  the  favorite.  Heracles  is  far  less  popular 
than  in  earlier  times.  Some  scenes  from  myths  appear  to  derive 
their  form  from  paintings.  The  designs  of  the  simpler  seals,  a 
head,  an  animal,  or  a  symbol  of  some  kind,  are  naturally  not  often 
to  be  distinguished  from  later  work. 

Besides  the  three  makers  of  cameos,  Athenion,  Boethus,  and 
Protarchus,  who  have  been  mentioned  above,  eleven  gem  cutters 

of  this  period  are  known,  the  most  distinguished  among 

3    Gem  cutters 
whom  was  Pyrgoteles,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  only 

gem  cutter  whom  Alexander  allowed  to  make  his  portrait.  Unfor- 
tunately he  is  known  only  through  literary  sources,  as  no  work  signed 
by  him  is  extant.  Of  the  personality  and  artistic  development  of 
the  others  nothing  is  known,  as  none  of  them  is  represented  by  a 
series  of  signed  works.1 

1  The  following  are  to  be  assigned,  on  grounds  of  style  and  on  account  of 
the  forms  of  the  letters  used  in  their  inscriptions,  to  the  third  century  B.C. : 
Lycomedes,  who  signs  a  gem  in  the  best  style  of  the  time  (Fig.  327),  on  which 
is  a  head,  probably  of  Berenice  I,  in  the  character  of  Isis ;  Daedalus,  the 
artist  of  a  portrait  of  a  bearded  man ;  Scopas,  who  is  known  by  a  portrait 
of  a  smooth  shaven  man  and  the  figure  of  a  woman  bathing  (Fig.  328),  the 
portrait  being  a  masterpiece  of  technique  and  also  (which  is  rare  in  the 
Hellenistic  period)  a  model  of  simple  naturalness  ;  Nicandrus,  who  signs 
the  portrait  of  a  woman,  executed  in  a  style  similar  to  that  of  Scopas ; 
Phidias,  the  artist  of  a  portrait,  probably  of  Alexander  ;  and  Philo,  who  signs 
the  portrait  of  a  man.  In  the  second  century  Agathopus  and  Heracleidas 
engraved  portraits  of  Romans.  The  form  of  his  name  indicates  that 
Heracleidas  was  a  Dorian,  probably  of  Sicily  or  southern  Italy.  Two  gems 
signed  by  Onesas,  a  peaceful  Athena  and  a  Muse  tuning  a  lyre  (Fig.  329), 
occur  in  several  replicas,  especially  glass  pastes,  and  are  to  be  assigned  to 
the  second  century.  An  Apollonius  of  this  time,  not  identical  with  the 
Apollonius  of  the  Hellenistic-Roman  period,  is  known  by  an  almost  effeminate 
portrait  bead  of  a  man  with  thick  hair. 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  26 


402  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

The  direct  continuation  of  Hellenistic  art,  as  exemplified  by 
gems,  is  found  in  the  Hellenistic-Roman  art  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  But  before  proceeding  to  describe  the  gems  of  that 
period,  it  may  be  well  to  devote  a  few  words  to  the  gems  made 
in  Italy  between  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  and  the  time 
of  Augustus ;  for  these,  although  they  are  not  the  work  of  Greek 
artists,  are  the  products  of  an  art  entirely  Greek  in  its  origin. 
The  gems  produced  in  Italy  and  Sicily  by  Greeks  are  not  to  be 
distinguished  from  those  produced  by  Greeks  in  other  regions, 
and  need  no  separate  treatment;  but  Etruscan  and  Latin,  or 
Roman,  gems  are  different. 

The  Etruscans  adopted  the  form  of  the  scarab  and  employed 
it  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  The  earliest  Etruscan  scarabs 
imitate  closely  Greek  art  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century 
and  the  years  before  the  Persian  Wars,  and  in  execution  they 
are  not  inferior  to  Greek  gems  of  that  time,  for  the  Etruscans  were 

Etruscan  excellent  artisans,  and  even  surpassed  the  Greeks  in 
scarabs  minute  and  accurate  work,  though  they  had  little  innate 
artistic  sense.  They  carved  the  body  of  the  beetle  with  great 
care  and  ornamented  the  flat  base  on  which  the  beetle  stands. 
This  the  Greeks  never  did,  and  although  the  earliest  Etruscan 
scarabs,  and  poor  specimens  of  later  date,  are  without  this 
ornament,  it  serves  as  a  convenient  and  easy  means  of  distin- 
guishing Etruscan  from  archaic  Greek  work. 

The  usual  material  of  Etruscan  scarabs  is  carnelian,  but  sar- 
donyx and  striped  agate  are  not  uncommon,  and  occasionally 
other  stones  are  used.  Glass  scarabs  are  also  found.  On  the 
most  archaic  scarabs  —  those  in  the  style  of  the  times  before 
the  Persian  Wars  —  the  designs  usually  represent  deities,  almost 
always  draped ;  after  the  Persian  Wars  Greek  heroes  furnish  the 
favorite  types,  and  figures  of  deities  are  comparatively  rare.  The 
best  scarabs  exhibit  the  severe  style  of  Attic  and  Aeginetan  art 
of  the  time  of  the  Persian  Wars  and  the  following  years.  These 
are  followed  by  scarabs  in  which  the  influence  of  Greek  art  of 
the  middle  and  second  half  of  the  fifth  century  is  visible,  but 


ENGRAVED   GEMS 


403 


very  few  show  any  influence  of  Greek  types  of  the  fourth  century, 
and  after  this  time  there  was  no  further  development,  though 
the  production  of  scarabs  in  Etruria  did  not  come  to  an  end 
at  once.  Until  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  Etruscan 
gem  cutters  seem  to  have  been  in  close  touch  with  continental 
Greece,  especially  with  Athens,  but  after  that  time  they  may  have 
drawn  their  knowledge  of  Greek  art  from  the  Greek  cities  in 
Italy  ;  at  any  rate,  the  influence  of  some  coin  types  of  those  cities 
has  been  observed  in  some  scarabs.  In  general,  the  style  of 
Etruscan  scarabs,  while  it  follows  pretty  closely  the  development 
of  Greek  art  in  the  fifth  century,  is  drier,  stiffer,  less  lifelike,  and 
more  awkward  than  that  of  Greek  works  (Fig.  330).  The  types 

represented     are     usually 

Greek  heroes,  for  the  most 

part  in  bent,  crouching,  or 

contorted  attitudes,  which 

are  well  adapted  to  fill  the 

broad    oval   field   of   the 

scarab  (Fig.  331).     The 

desire  to  fill  the  field  may 

account  in  part  for  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  winged  figures,  which  may  also  be  due  to 
the  early  influence  of  Ionic  art  in  Etruria.  Religious  representa- 
tions or  scenes  of  worship  are  rare.  Inscriptions  are  common, 
but  do  not  designate  the  owner  nor  the  artist ;  they  are  all  expla- 
nations of  the  design  and  consist  of  the  names  of  Greek  heroes 
in  Etruscan  form. 

Scarabs  with  coarse  engravings  done  only  with  the  round  drill 
have  been  found  in  great  numbers  in  Etruria  and  Samnium,  less 
plentifully  in  Sardinia,  and  occasionally  elsewhere.  They  exhibit 
some  traits  of  archaism,  but  are  evidently  not  really  archaic,  for 
running  is  properly  represented  on  them,  and  drapery  shows  a 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  the  fourth  century.  Some  scarabs  which 
really  belong  to  this  class  are  engraved  with  sharp,  fine  lines  in 
addition  to  the  lines  and  surfaces  engraved  with  the  round  drill. 


FlG.  330.  —  Etruscan 
scarab.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  Gem.  PI. 
XVIII,  35.) 


FlG.  331. —  Etruscan 
scarab.  (Furtw. 
Ant.  Gem,  PI. 
XVI,  53.) 


404  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

In  these  there  is  an  affectation  of  archaism,  which  is  sometimes 
carried  very  far.  There  is  nothing  to  prove  conclusively  that 
these  gems  are  Etruscan,  but  they  were  evidently  made  in  Italy, 
and  the  scarab  form  in  gems,  few  if  any  of  which  are  earlier  than 
the  fourth  century,  shows  at  least  very  strong  Etruscan  influence. 
Among  the  types  that  appear  on  scarabs  of  this  class,  Hercules  and 
Silenus  are  especially  common,  which  may  perhaps  be  an  indica- 
tion that  the  scarabs  were  made  in  great  part  for  people  of  Italic 
race,  among  whom  Hercules  and  Silenus  were  especially  honored. 
Another  class  of  Italian  gems  is  neither  Greek  nor  Etruscan, 
but  Latin  or  Roman.  Two  groups  may  be  distinguished,  in  the 
Latin  or  Ro-  ^rst  °^  which  the  Etruscan  style  is  imitated,  while  the 
man  gems  second  is  an  Italian  development  of  Hellenistic  Greek 
art.  The  gems  thus  exemplify  the  two  forms  of  civilization  which 
were  striving  for  the  mastery  in  republican  Rome.  Some  of  the 
earliest  Roman  gems  of  the  Etruscan  style  have  the  scarab  form, 
but  most  of  them  are  flat  ring  stones,  in  shape  not  unlike  the  flat 
side  of  the  scarab.  The  field  is  usually  entirely  filled  by  the 
figure  or  the  figure  stands  on  a  line,  the  space  below  which  is 
either  left  vacant  or  filled  with  lines  or  dots.  A  border  of  lines 
often  encircles  the  field.  The  most  usual  material  is  sardonyx, 
though  carnelian  is  common  and  other  stones  occur.  Glass  seals 
were  evidently  made  in  great  quantities,  but  these  are  as  a  rule 
very  ill  preserved.  The  colors  of  the  glass  are  in  general  those 
of  the  favorite  stones.  These  gems  show  some  technical  skill, 
but  not  artistic  spirit  nor  great  care  in  execution.  In  style  they 
are  eclectic,  with  an  inclination  toward  the  severe  style  of  the  best 
period  of  Etruscan  scarabs.  The  inscriptions  on  the  scarabs  of 
this  class  are  in  Latin,  but,  like  those  on  Etruscan  scarabs,  desig- 
nate the  person  represented  ;  those  on  the  ring  stones  usually  give 
the  name  of  the  owner,  in  Greek,  Latin,  or  Etruscan  characters. 
The  types  are  commonly  Greek  heroes,  as  on  Etruscan  scarabs, 
but  many  scenes  of  combat  occur,  as  well  as  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  scenes  of  a  religious  nature.  There  is  no  connection  be- 
tween these  gems  and  the  types  of  Greek  coins  of  southern  Italy. 


ENGRAVED  GEMS  405 

The  second  group  of  Roman  gems  has  no  connection  with 
Etruscan  scarabs,  but  very  close  connection  with  Hellenistic  Greek 
gems.  They  are  ring  stones,  never  pierced,  generally  of  a  wide 
oval  form,  but  sometimes  long  and  narrow,  almost  always  very 
convex,  though  a  few  specimens  are  flat.  The  favorite  material 
is  brown  sard,  after  which  carnelian  is  most  common.  Gems  of 
this  group  were  also  reproduced  in  glass  by  the  wholesale. 
Cameos  are  unknown.  The  inscriptions  designate  the  owner,  and 
are  almost  all  Latin,  with  numerous  abbreviations  and  ligatures. 
In  style  these  gems  differ  greatly  from  the  preceding  group.  Full, 
round  figures  are  preferred ;  entire  figures,  busts,  and  heads  are 
often  represented  in  front  face,  and  there  is 
much  good  foreshortening,  as  is  the  case  on 
Hellenistic  gems.  There  is  no  trace  of  the 
hardness,  dryness,  and  awkwardness  of  the 
Etruscan  style.  The  types  and  motives  re- 
semble those  of  Hellenistic  gems.  One  (Fig. 

6       .  V  FIG.  332. -Com  type 

332)  reproduces  the  type  of  a  series  of  Roman-         on  gem.    (Furtw. 

Campanian  coins  with  the  inscription  Roma         Ant-     Gem-     P1- 

,     ~  j  j  r>  i  •  xxvn,  34.) 

and  a  Campanian  and  an  armed  Roman  taking 

an  oath  over  a  pig  held  by  a  kneeling  fetial.  These  coins  were 
struck  between  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  and  268  B.C.  The 
gem  is  therefore  presumably  Campanian,  not  later  than  268  B.C., 
and  certain  closely  related  gems  are  assigned  with  great  proba- 
bility to  the  same  period  and  the  same  region ;  in  fact,  it  is  probable 
that  many  Roman  gems  of  the  third  and  second  centuries  B.C., 
both  with  and  without  Latin  inscriptions,  are  of  Campanian  origin. 
The  classicism  noticed  in  some  Hellenistic  gems  and  preva- 
lent in  the  Augustan  period  is  absent  from  gems  of  this  class,  in 
which  a  humorous  element  is  often  to  be  observed.  Favorite 
types  are  Eros,  Aphrodite,  Fortuna  on  a  wheel,  Muses,  the  head 
of  a  youthful  river  god,  the  bearded  Heracles,  Diomed  and  Odys- 
seus, Perseus,  and  Iphigenia  and  Orestes ;  but  as  a  rule  the  more 
serious  deeds  of  heroes  are  not  represented.  Among  representa- 
tions of  men  on  horseback  that  of  M.  Curtius  is  to  be  noticed, 


406  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

and  among  the  scenes  of  battle  conflicts  with  Gauls  occur  (Fig. 
333).  Single  Gauls  are  also  represented.  Hunting  scenes,  dwarfs, 
Roman  officers,  orators,  and  athletes  are  among  the  types  derived 
from  life.  Comic  actors  and  masks  are  represented,  but  tragic 
figures  are  rare.  The  portrait  heads  are  some- 
times admirably  lifelike.  Some  combinations  of 
human  and  animal  forms  occur,  and  animals  are 
comparatively  common.  On  many  seals  the 
FIG.  333.— Combat  designs  represent  inanimate  objects,  weapons, 
with  Gaul.  (Furtw.  and  the  like. 

xxvil  IcO  ^n  ^e  ^rst  centurv  B-c>  tne  grouP  °f  Roman 

gems  with  designs  imitating  the  Etruscan  style 
loses  its  earnestness;  Eros,  Eros  and  Psyche,  Dionysus,  and  their 
followers  appear  among  the  types ;  the  severity  of  the  earlier  style 
disappears,  and  only  its  stiffness  and  awkwardness  remain.  At 
the  same  time  the  Roman-Campanian  style  loses  its  freshness,  and 
imitation  of  classic  art  is  introduced.  The  style  and  the  inscrip- 
tions recall  Roman  coins  of  the  same  period.  The  two  groups 
lose  much  of  their  distinctive  character  and  approach  more  nearly 
the  Hellenistic-Roman  style  of  the  early  Empire.  Some  Roman 
portrait  gems  of  the  first  century  B.C.  are  completely  Hellenistic 
in  style. 

From  the  time  of  Augustus  no  distinction  can  be  made  between 
the  gems  produced  in  the  various  artistic  centres  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  All  are  late  Greek,  and,  in  general,  classical  in  style 
and  type.  By  far  the  greatest  number  of  extant  ancient  gems 
The  impe-  belongs  to  the  time  of  Augustus.  Rome  was  now  the 
rial  period  centre  of  the  world,  and  although  works  of  art  were 
in  great  part  made  by  Greeks,  they  were  made  for  Romans.  In 
essence  they  are  Greek,  but  Greek  of  Roman  times  and  in  Roman 
taste,  which  made  for  classicism,  though  with  free  use  of  all  that 
had  been  learned  and  achieved  since  the  time  of  Alexander. 
Even  before  the  Augustan  period  gems  of  Hellenistic-Roman  style 
had  been  worn  by  cultivated  Romans,  but  the  fullest  development 
and  the  widest  diffusion  of  the  style  belong  to  the  time  of  Augus- 


ENGRAVED   GEMS  407 

tus.  The  portraits  on  gems  are  frequently  of  great  assistance  in 
fixing  their  dates.  Pliny  (N.  H.  37,  8)  and  Suetonius  (Aug.  50) 
state  that  the  portrait  which  Augustus  used  as  a  seal  in  his  later 
years  was  by  Dioscurides.  This  portrait  seal  is  lost,  but  a  cameo 
and  several  intaglios  (Figs.  334,  335)  signed  by  Dioscurides  show 
his  style  and  help  to  establish  the  Augustan  period  as  the  date  of 
similar  works.  His  extant  works  show  that  Dioscurides  was  a 
master  of  all  technical  skill,  but  not  an  inventive  or  creative  artist. 
His  three  sons,  Eutychus,  Herophilus, 
and  Hyllus,  are  known  by  signed 
gems,  and  Eutychus  mentions  Aegae, 
in  Cilicia,  as  his  home.  Evidently  the 
family  came  from  Cilicia  to  Rome  as 
the  best  place  for  the  practice  of  their 
art.  The  latest  gem  cutter  who  signs  FIGS.  334,  335.  -Gems  by  Di- 
his  work  and  can  be  dated  is  Euodus,  oscurides. 


u  •*    rr  r      J     -*.*  PI.  XLIX,  6,  7.) 

who  cut  the  portrait  of  J  ulia,  daughter 

of  Titus.1  The  art  evidently  declined  rapidly  after  the  first  cen- 
tury after  Christ. 

Under  Augustus  and  until  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century 
many  fine  cameos  were  produced,  but  after  that  time  they  are 

few  and  poor.     Scarabs  are  no  longer  made.     A  few 

.  .     .    .  Cameos 

pierced  stones,  to  be  used  as  pendants,  with  designs 

on  four  sides,  exist,  but  they  are  of  poor  quality.  Ring  stones 
prevail  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  intaglios.  They  are 
either  flat  or  convex,  with  a  preference  for  a  flat  or  only  slightly 
convex  form,  only  in  some  bright  stones,  e.g.,  garnet  and  ame- 
thyst, the  convex  form  is  preferred,  as  it  makes  the  beauty  of  the 
material  more  evident.  Generally  the  shape  is  a  broad  oval,  but 
some  stones  with  archaistic  designs  and  a  border  of  small  lines 
are  rectangular  with  rounded  corners.  The  settings  are  often 
broad  and  hollow,  and  frequently  very  elaborate.  Some  intaglios 

1  In  all,  more  than  thirty  gem  engravers  of  the  imperial  period  are  known 
by  their  signatures  on  extant  works.  The  list  is  given  by  Furtwangler,  Antikt 
Gemmen,  pp.  353-358. 


4o8  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  this  period  are  too  large  for  rings  and  were  evidently  intended, 
like  the  cameos,  for  the  adornment  of  cups,  vases,  caskets,  and 
the  like,  or  to  be  worn  as  pendants  or  in  necklaces.  Few  ancient 
settings  for  cameos  exist.  Only  the  smallest  could  be  worn  in 
rings,  and  even  these  were  not  well  adapted  for  use  as  seals. 

The  variety  of  materials  employed  was  very  great,  but  the  trans- 
parent stones,   carnelian,  prase,  chalcedony,  garnet,   carbuncle, 
beryl,  topaz,  peridot,  emerald,  and  sapphire  were  especially  popu- 
lar.   Red  jasper  was  also  employed,  especially  by  Aspasius,  the  ar- 
tist of  the  famous  bust  of  the  Athena  Parthenos  (Fig.  336).    Glass 
impressions    are    extremely   numerous   in    the 
Augustan   period,   but   not   common   in   later 
times.     Glass  was  also  used  for  the  production 
of  cheap  cameos,  and  occasionally  cameos  were 
actually  cut  (not  pressed)  in  glass.     Real  stone 
cameos  were  usually   made   of  sardonyx,  but 
cameos  in  high  relief  were  made  of  unstratified 
stones,  as  the  strata  of  sardonyx  are  not  thick 
6  —  Gem  b       enough  to  produce  a  good  effect  in  high  relief. 
Aspasius.  (Furtw.     All  technical  processes   were  familiar  at   this 
Ant.    Gem.    Pi.      time,  and  the  Graeco-Roman  gems,  so  far  as 
they  can  be  distinguished  from  those  of  Hel- 
lenistic times,  show  no  less  technical  skill,  though  they  are  inferior 
in  freshness  and  artistic  feeling. 

A  remarkably  fine  cameo  (0.187  *  0.223  m.  in  size)  is  the 
"gemma  Augusta"  in  Vienna  (Fig.  337).  The  design  is  in  two 
rows.  Above,  Augustus  is  seated  beside  the  Dea  Roma,  and 
about  him  are  grouped  personifications  of  the  earth,  the  inhabited 
world,  and  the  sea  or  the  heavens.  Over  him  is  the  constellation 
of  his  nativity,  Capricorn.  At  the  left  is  a  chariot,  driven  by  Vic- 
toria, from  which  Tiberius  is  alighting.  Beside  the  chariot  stands 
the  youthful  Germanicus.  Probably  the  representation  refers  to 
the  triumph  of  Tiberius  in  12  A.D.  In  the  lower  row,  a  trophy 
is  being  erected,  probably  with  reference  to  the  victories  of  Ti- 
berius in  Germany  and  perhaps  to  those  of  Augustus  in  Pannonia. 


ENGRAVED   GEMS 


409 


Many  other  cameos  of  historical  interest  exist ;  but  by  no  means 
all  the  cameos  of  this  period  are  historical.  Many  are  mythologi- 
cal, and  these  are  Hellenistic,  especially  Alexandrian,  in  character. 
Among  the  types  are  Egyptian  deities,  Aphrodite  and  Dionysus, 
and  their  train.  The  motives  are  apparently  derived  in  great  part 
from  paintings.  A  few  sculptures  in  the  round  carved  in  semi- 


FlG.  337.  —  Gemma  Augusta.     (Furtw.  Ant.  Gem.  PI.  LVI.) 

precious  stones  may  be  regarded  as  a  branch  of  cameo  work,  an 
example  of  which  is  the  head  of  a  Roman  military  person  of  the 
first  century  after  Christ,  now  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts  (Fig.  338).  There  is  also  a  limited  number  of  cups  and 
vases  of  sardonyx  with  reliefs,  for  the  most  part  of  little  artistic 
merit.  They  are  Hellenistic  in  treatment,  even  when  Roman  in 
subject.  Some  imitations  in  glass  of  such  vases  exist,  the  most 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


beautiful  of  which  is  the  famous 
Portland  vase  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum (Fig.  339). 

The  intaglios  are  more  varied 
in  subject  and  much  more  nu- 
merous than  the  cam- 
Intaglios 

eos.      The    subjects 

are  often  derived  from  Hellen- 
istic paintings,  and  it  is  frequently 
impossible  to  tell  whether  the 
gems  are  Hellenistic  or  Graeco- 
Roman.  Statues,  especially  those 
of  Polyclitan  style,  are  often  imi- 


FlG.  338.  —  Head  in  Boston. 
(Photograph.) 


tated,  sometimes  with  variations.  Numerous  portraits  exist,  both  of 
Romans  and  famous  Greeks.  Many  seals  are  engraved  with  sym- 
bols of  good  omen,  such  as  the  cornucopia,  the  steering  oar,  ears 

of  grain,  and  palm  leaves,  and  the 
gems  called  grylli  are  engraved  with 
signs  of  magic  import. 

By  the  end  of  the  first  century  A.D. 
the  glyptic  art  had  evidently  become 
unfashionable.  After  this  there  are 
some  fine  portraits,  but  even  the 
portraits  are  not  always  fine,  and 
there  is  no  more  good  work  in  ideal 
representations.  Yet  there  are  many 
intaglios,  engraved  with  protective 
deities  or  symbols.  The  work  is  all 
alike,  routine  work,  without  charac- 
ter, and  showing  no  local  styles.  In 
the  second  century  there  are  still 


FlG.  339.  —  Portland  vase. 
(Photograph.) 


signs  of  good  artistic  traditions,  but  after  that  there  is  a  great  falling 
off,  with  only  a  slight  revival  under  Constantine.  The  stones  used 
are  the  same  as  before,  except  that  yellow  jasper  is  added  to  those 
previously  employed.  Glass  pastes  are  very  poor  and,  in  compari- 


ENGRAVED   GEMS  411 

son  with  previous  times,  not  numerous.  Technically  the  work  is 
poor.  The  choice  of  deities  represented  is  now  more  limited,  and 
Fortuna,  Muses,  and  Victoria  are  favorite  types.  Astrological  and 
gnomic  types  and  the  so-called  Abraxas  gems  are  numerous.  On 
these  last,  mixed  forms  of  deities  are  represented,  especially  the 
god  Jao  Abraxas  Sabaoth,  a  person  with  serpents  for  legs,  a  cock's 
(or  ass's)  head,  a  breastplate,  a  shield,  and  a  whip,  accompanied  by 
curious  inscriptions  of  mingled  Jewish,  Christian,  and  Greek  ele- 
ments. Christian  gems  are  comparatively  few  and  unimportant. 
The  best  work  is  seen  in  portraits,  and  some  portrait  cameos 
are  good.  Cameos  worn  in  rings  have  sometimes  merely  an  in- 
scription instead  of  a  design.  A  few  round  sculptures  in  semi- 
precious stones  occur,  some  of  which  belonging  to  the  second 
century  are  carefully  executed,  though  somewhat  cold  and  aca- 
demic in  style.  Rings  entirely  of  stone  are  now  again  made  occa- 
sionally. These  are  all  large,  evidently  made  for  show.  As  time 
goes  on,  the  art  of  gem  cutting  loses  its  Hellenic  character  en- 
tirely, and  in  the  later  Empire  shares  the  fate  of  all  the  other 
arts. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
VASES 

FROM  the  description  of  the  art  of  prehistoric  Greece  it  is  clear 
that  the  manufacture  of  vases  was  an  important  industry  in  Myce- 
naean times,  and  even  in  still  earlier  periods.  The  great  skill  and 
refinement  of  the  decoration  which  some  of  the  best  Prehellenic 
vases  reveal  were  hardly  surpassed  in  later  times,  but,  for  all  that, 
the  art  of  vase  manufacture  gains  much  additional  interest  as  time 
goes  on.  It  passes  like  other  arts  through  a  period  of  crudity 
during  the  centuries  that  immediately  precede  the  first  Olympiad, 
and  during  the  two  centuries,  indeed,  which  follow  this  date ; 
but  when  the  best  work  of  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries  B.C.  is 
reached,  the  importance  of  the  subject  to  the  student  of  the  life 
and  art  of  ancient  Greece  can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  It  remains, 
of  course,  a  minor  and  industrial  art,  but  such  art  in  Greece  ap- 
pears to  have  felt  very  strongly  the  influence  of  the  great  artists ; 
and  thus,  since  the  works  of  the  major  art  of  painting  have  per- 
ished, it  is  mainly  to  the  vases  that  we  must  look  to  gain  some 
idea  of  what  the  character  of  the  lost  works  was.  It  is,  no  doubt, 
possible  to  exaggerate  the  closeness  of  the  connection  between  the 
great  paintings  and  the  vases,  but  we  know  that  the  vase-painters 
often  chose  the  same  subjects  for  their  pictures  that  the  greater 
artists  used,  and  it  is  scarcely  credible  that  they  should  not  often 
have  reproduced  some  of  the  famous  paintings  both  in  motive  and 
style.  Vases  are  furthermore  of  high  importance  in  the  study  of 
mythology.  They  illustrate  with  astonishing  fulness  the  myths 
which  make  up  the  subject-matter  of  Greek  epic  and  dramatic 
poetry,  and  hence  often  throw  much  light  not  only  upon  the  work 
of  the  poets,  but  also  upon  traditional  and  popular  variants  from 

412 


VASES  413 

the  literary  form  of  the  myths.  Nor  is  this  all.  Many  of  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Greeks  are  portrayed  by  the  vase-painters. 
The  school,  the  palaestra,  the  banquet,  the  Bacchic  rout,  the 
stage,  the  artisan's  workshop,  many  scenes  from  the  varied  hap- 
penings of  everyday  life,  all  find  illustration  here.  Thus  when 
we  consider  in  addition  the  high  artistic  merit  of  many  of  the 
vases  themselves,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  dwell  on  their  impor- 
tance. To  the  student  of  archaeology  and  art  they  have  an  interest 
which  in  ancient  times  no  one  would  have  claimed  for  them,  as  is 
shown  by  the  very  few  allusions  to  the  potters'  and  vase-painters' 
art  in  Greek  writers.  Then  it  was  merely  a  subsidiary  art,  taken 
by  every  one  as  a  matter  of  course.  To-day  our  attitude  toward 
such  work  must  of  necessity  be  very  different. 

FORMS 
(See  Figs.  340,  341,  342.) 

The  manufacture  of  pottery  in  Greek  lands  was  an  industry  of 
such  vast  extent  that  it  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  a  hand- 
book to  mention  all  the  vase  forms.  These  forms  vary  consider- 
ably in  different  periods,  and  certain  ones  may  thus  occasionally 
be  associated  with  particular  styles  of  painting.  This  is,  however, 
possible  only  to  a  limited  degree,  since  certain  vases  that  are  more 
common,  like  the  amphora  and  crater  and  various  types  of  cup, 
occur  in  connection  with  more  than  one  style.  But  there  are 
many  variations  of  a  single  form,  and  these  may,  like  different 
forms,  become  characteristic  of  a  style  or  period.  It  is,  therefore, 
important  to  observe  not  only  the  painter's  work  of  decoration, 
but  also  the  shapes  which  the  potter  uses.  The  accompanying 
illustrations,  all  from  vases  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston, 
are  typical  of  the  most  important  forms. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  names  now  generally  used  to  desig- 
nate some  of  the  shapes  are  of  rather  doubtful  application.  Very 
likely  they  were  used  with  considerable  latitude  in  ancient  times, 
and,  as  is  the  case  with  such  terms  to-day,  the  usage  of  different 


414 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


CM) 


FlG.  340. —Forms  of  vases.     Boston.     (Photographs.)     (The  numbers  in  paren- 
theses are  repeated  on  a  larger  scale  in  Fig.  341-) 


VASES 


4*5 


4i6 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


VASES  417 

places  was  not  always  the  same.  The  names,  however,  of  the 
chief  forms  are,  without  doubt,  known  to  us.  These  appear  in  some 
cases  to  have  been  determined  either  by  peculiarities  of  form,  as 
amphora  (two-handled)  or  by  designations  of  material,  as  alabas- 
trum  (6  dAa/JacTTos,  a  receptacle  of  alabaster),  or  pyxis  (17  TTU£OJ, 
boxwood),  but  the  consciousness  of  etymology  must  soon  have 
been  lost.  In  other  cases  names  were  given  from  the  chief  use  to 
which  a  vase  was  put,  as  crater  (mixing-bowl),  hydria  (water-jar), 
oenochoe  (wine-pourer),  but  the  original  use  was  probably  often 
forgotten  when  vases  were  employed,  as  they  not  infrequently 
were,  merely  for  decorative  purposes,  or  in  connection  with  the 
ritual  of  the  dead. 

Nos.  3,  4,  and  5  are  all  forms  of  the  amphora  (6  ofi<£i<£opevs  or 
d/A<£o|t>£vs),  commonly  used  for  holding  water,  oil,  or  wine.  No.  3 
is  a  frequent  form  in  the  Geometric  style.  Nos.  4  and  5  illustrate 
an  earlier  and  somewhat  later  type,  respectively.  These  vases  are 
Attic,  but  the  shapes  are  found  in  ofher  styles.  The  very  early 
Attic  amphora,  in  Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Fig.  2079,  illustrates  a 
stage  of  development  between  Nos.  3  and  4.  No.  5  shows  some 
advance  in  firmness  and  elegance  of  outline,  and  the  later  practice 
of  moulding  the  foot  of  the  vase  in  more  than  a  single  curve. 
No.  i,  &pelice  (17  TreXtxr;,  6  Tre'Av^),  and  No.  2,  a  stamnus  (6  0-rayu.vos), 
may  be  thought  of  as  variations  of  the  amphora.  The  forms  are 
common  in  the  Attic  red-figured  technique,  but  the  names,  espe- 
cially/^//V<?,  are  of  doubtful  application.  Characteristic  also  of  this 
technique  is  an  elongated  form  of  the  normal  amphora  shape 
known  as  "  Nolan  "  from  the  fact  that  many  examples  of  it  were 
found  at  Nola  in  Campania  (Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Fig.  2131). 
The  still  more  elongated  prothesis  (funeral)  amphora  should  aLo 
be  noted  (Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  p.  1975). 

Nos.  8, 10,  n,  12,  and  13  are  types  of  the  crater  (6  Kparrip) ,  or 
mixing-bowl,  which  was  used  primarily  for  the  mixing  of  wine  at 
banquets  and  the  like.  No.  8  represents  the  deinus  (dinus)  or 
lebes  (6  Scivos,  SivX,  6  Ae/fys),  a  rather  uncommon  form,  but  one 
which  is  found  in  several  styles,  including  the  Corinthian  and  the 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  27 


418  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Attic  black-figured  and  red-figured.  For  a  good  example  of  such  a 
vase  in  use,  see  Furtwangler  and  Reichhold,  Griech.  Vasenmalerei. 
PI.  4.  No.  10  is  a  psycter  (6  \l>vKTrjp),  or  wine-cooler.  Its  pe- 
culiar shape  made  it  possible  to  set  the  vase  in  a  larger  crater. 
The  form  is  most  common  among  the  Attic  red-figured  vases  of 
the  early  fifth  century  B.C.  No.  n  is  a  crater  of  calyx  form,  of 
a  type  frequent  among  Attic  red-figured  vases,  where  it  affords 
unusual  space  for  large  compositions.  The  well-known  crater  from 
Orvieto,  which  is  thought  to  reflect  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  art  of  Polygnotus  (p.  532  f.),  is  of  this  shape.  No.  12  is  a  crater 
with  volute  handles.  It  is  sometimes  classed  as  an  amphora,  and  in 
some  instances  its  main  outline  seems  to  pass  into  that  shape  (cp. 
Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  ceramique  grecque,  Fig.  116).  No.  13, 
usually  known  as  the  celebe  (17  KeAe'/fy)  and  also  as  anfora  a 
colonette,  is  especially  a  Corinthian  form.  The  famous  Francoi: 
vase  (p.  474),  and  perhaps  also  No.  12,  appear  to  be  developed 
from  this  shape.  For  a  Geometric  form  of  crater,  see  p.  439. 

Nos.  6  and  9  are  forms  which  in  general  outline  suggest 
the  amphora,  but  with  the  handles  or  handle  so  arranged  that 
liquids  may  be  readily  poured  from  them.  No.  9  is  a  common 
form  of  hydria  (17  vS/ota) ,  or  water-jar.  No.  6,  a  slightly  later  form 
characteristic  of  Attic  red-figured  vases,  is  very  similar,  except 
that  the  handle  at  the  neck  is  set  lower.  This  variety  of  hydria  is 
known  as  the  calpis  (17  KaXirts).  No.  7  shows  a  form  of  oenochot 
(17  OIVO^OT;),  or  wine-jug.  The  type  is  that  of  the  modern  pitcher, 
jug,  or  ewer,  and  naturally  shows  many  variations  in  size  and 
form.  It  is  found  in  all  styles  and  in  early  and  late  periods. 

Nos.  14,  18,  20,  21,  22,  24,  and  25  are  types  of  drinking-cups 
which  naturally  show  great  variety  in  shape.  No.  14  is  \\\e  scyphus 
or  cotyle  (6  or  TO  O-KV<£OS,  17  /corvX^).  This  simple  shape  is  common 
to  all  styles  and  periods.  Nos.  18,  20,  and  21  are  forms  of  the 
cylix  (6  KuA.i£).  No.  18  shows  the  vase  without  the  stem ;  No.  20 
with  the  stem,  in  the  form  used  by  the  artist  Tleson.  No. 
21  illustrates  the  flattening  and  spreading  out  of  the  cylix,  a 
change  which  yielded  a  much  more  ample  field  for  decoration. 


VASES  419 

ISO.  19  is  the  cyathus  (6  Kw0os).  The  long,  high  handle  makes 
it  suitable  for  dipping  out  wine  from  a  crater.  Nos.  24  and  25 
are  forms  of  the  cantharus  (6  Kavftipos).  That  of  24  is  most  typi- 
cal, and  is  often  associated  in  vases  with  Dionysus  (cp.  Baumeister, 
Denkmdler,  Fig.  2122,  and  Furtwangler  and  Reichhold,  Griech. 
Vasenmalerei,  I,  PL  44).  It  is  found,  too,  in  connection  with 
representations  of  the  dead  (cp.  Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Figs.  343 
and  935).  There  stands  upon  the  altar  on  the  Francois  vase 
a  cantharus  of  this  type. 

No.  22  is  a  rhytum  (TO  pvrov),  a  kind  of  drinking-horn,  and  is 
an  example  of  a  plastic  form  of  vase.  Such  vases,  of  course,  show 
the  greatest  possible  variety  of  shape.  They  come  into  frequent 
use  with  the  Attic  red-figured  style,  and  are  very  common  among 
the  vases  of  southern  Italy. 

Nos.  15,  16,  17,  and  23  are  associated  originally  with  toilet  pur- 
poses of  various  kinds.  No.  15,  a. pyxis  (17  TTV&.S),  is  a  toilet-box  or 
jar  used  especially  by  women.  The  decorations  are  often  scenes 
at  a  lady's  toilet.  No.  17,  an  aryballus  (6  apv(3a.X\.o<;) ,  is  a  form 
of  oil-flask  often  found  among  Corinthian  vases.  No.  16  is  an 
alabastrum  (TO  dAa/foo-rpov) .  This  also  is  a  common  Corinthian 
type,  and  was  used  for  ointments.  The  handle  is  often  merely  a 
perforated  projection  through  which  a  string  could  be  run.  No. 
23  is  that  of  a  typical  Attic  lecythus  (^  A.r/Ku0os),  or  oil-flask.  In 
Athens  this  shape  has  its  most  marked  development  in  connection 
with  funeral  ritual.  The  lecythus  shows  considerable  variety  in  its 
shape,  and  even  the  little  Proto-Corinthian  vases  (see  p.  444)  are 
usually  classed  under  this  form. 

Attention  may  also  be  called  to  the  irregular  shapes,  not  here 
illustrated,  which  are  classed  under  the  term  ascus  (6  do-/<os,  a 
sack)  from  their  general  resemblance  to  wine-skins.  These  date 
from  the  time  of  the  Attic  red-figured  style  on.  The  term  ascus 
as  applied  to  vases  is  not  ancient. 

NOTE. — The  discussion  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  vases  is  omitted  from 
this  handbook  because  of  its  slight  effect  in  the  development  of  strictly  Greek 
art.  There  is  a  probable  reference  to  glass  drinking-vessels  in  the  Acharnians 


420  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  Aristophanes  (vs.  74),  and  vessels,  pretty  certainly  of  glass,  are  inventoried 
in  the  Athenian  treasure  lists  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  and  in  some  later  simi- 
lar lists  from  Cos,  but  vases  of  this  kind  were  clearly  precious  and  rather  un- 
usual. There  appears  to  be  no  evidence  that  the  blowing  of  glass  was  prac- 
tised in  Greece  before  Roman  times,  and  then  its  manufacture  seems  to 
be  due  to  Egyptian  and  oriental  influences.  Glass  pastes,  however,  were 
familiar  to  the  gem-cutters  and  makers  of  mosaics.  Such  specimens  of  glass 
vases  as  have  been  found  in  Greece  proper  are  chiefly,  and  very  possibly  en- 
tirely, importations.  On  the  other  hand,  where  Greek  civilization  came  in 
contact  with  peoples  long  acquainted  with  the  manufacture  of  glass,  as  at 
Alexandria  and  in  Cyprus,  the  art  developed  to  a  high  degree  of  beauty  and 
excellence,  and  continued  to  flourish  in  Roman  times.  Vases  of  many  shapes 
exist  in  great  numbers,  some  of  which  are  of  clear  glass  that  has  taken  on  a 
beautiful  iridescence.  At  Pompeii  there  is  evidence  of  the  use  of  clear  glass 
in  window-frames.  In  the  manufacture  of  colored,  translucent  glass  and  of 
opaque  glass  in  colors  extraordinary  skill  was  attained,  as  is  well  shown  by  the 
celebrated  Portland  vase  (p.  410).  The  artistic  use,  however,  of  such  glass  was 
known  to  the  Egyptians  from  a  period  that  antedates  the  rise  of  Greek  art,  and 
it  was  understood  by  the  Phoenicians  also  at  an  early  date.  See  Perrot  and 
Chipiez,  Histoire,  III,  Pis.  VI-1X.  The  mechanical  facility  developed  by  the 
glass-workers  of  Hellenistic  and  Roman  times  produced  rich  color  effects  of 
the  greatest  possible  variety.  This  is  well  shown  in  the  so-called  millcfiori 
technique,  in  which  sections  of  a  rod  made  up  of  fine  stalks  of  different  colored 
glass  are  fused  together  to  form  the  surface  of  the  vase.  The  splendid  collec- 
tion belonging  to  J.  P.  Morgan,  Esq.  {Collection  Julien  Greau,  texte  redige 
par  IV.  Froehner},  affords  very  fine  illustrations  of  ancient  work  in  glass.  See 
also  Froehner,  La  verrerie  antique,  Bliimner,  Technologic  und  Terminologie 
der  Gewerbe  iind  Kunste  bei  den  Griechen  und  Romern,  iv,  pp.  379  ff.,  the 
article  s.v. '  Vitrum,'  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Antiquities,  and  A.  Kisa,  Das 
Glas  im  Alter  turn  (1908). 

TECHNIQUE 

Since  little  information  can  be  gathered  from  Greek  writers 
on  the  subject  of  the  manufacture  of  vases,  we  are  forced  to 
gain  almost  all  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  from  a  study  of  the 
vase-maker's  finished  work,  and  from  a  few  pictures  which  rep- 
resent various  phases  of  his  handicraft. 

Greece  afforded  a  large  variety  of  more  or  less  suitable  clays. 
That  of  Cape  Colias  in  Attica  was  considered  especially  fine, 


VASES  421 

but  in  Athens  itself,  in  the  Ceramicus  or  potters'  quarter,  good 
material  was  found.  The  region  of  Corinth,  too,  afforded  a  clay 
of  somewhat  lighter  color  than  that  found  in  Attica,  but  of  good 
quality ;  and  many  other  places,  both  among  the  islands  and  on 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  in  Magna  Graecia,  yielded 
the  necessary  material  for  numerous  local  centres  of 
manufacture.  Chemical  analyses  of  a  few  of  the  clays  as  they  appear 
in  some  of  the  different  kinds  of  vases  have  been  made,  but  these 
are  still  inadequate  to  throw  much  light  on  the  manufactures  of 
different  localities.  This  question  is,  moreover,  beset  with  dif- 
ficulties, since  clay  from  a  single  manufactory  was  apparently  not 
always  of  quite  the  same  composition ;  and  the  work  of  different 
potters  in  the  same  place  may  be  expected  to  show  some  variation. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  of  manufacture  was,  of  course,  the 
proper  preparation  of  the  clay.  Until  this  could  be  done  with 
skill,  the  successful  outcome  of  the  work  must  be  doubtful.  The 
potters  show  progress  in  this  respect  as  their  art  advances,  but 
at  no  time  can  they  be  said  to  have  excelled  the  best  work  of  the 
Mycenaean  age. 

The  clay  had  first  to  be  purified  and  washed  free  from  sub- 
stances which  would  mar  the  smooth  surface  of  the  finished  vase. 
It  was  then  carefully  kneaded  (TOV  -n-rjXov  6pyd£tw)  and  brought 
to  a  consistency  suitable  for  shaping  it  upon  the  wheel.  During 
this  process  other  material  was  sometimes  worked  in  with  the 
clay  to  deepen  its  color.  This  appears  to  have  been  usually  a 
red  earth  (17  /xiXros)  which  contained  ferric  oxide. 

The   earliest  mention  of  the   potter's  wheel  (o  r/ao^os)   is  in 
Iliad,  XVIII,  600,  where  in  a  simile  a  potter  propelling  his  wheel 
with  his  hands  is  described.     But  the  wheel  was  known     Potter's 
long  before  this  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  basin       wheel 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  except  in  the  case  of  some  vases  of 
plastic  form  practically  all  Greek  pottery  which  has  any  artistic 
interest  was  wheel-made.1     There  is  no  actual  evidence  that  the 

1  The  large  irlOoi  and  earthenware  cisterns  were  often  built  up  with  a  free 
hand,  probably  about  a  wooden  centring. 


422 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


simple  contrivance  known  as  the  "  kickwheel "  was  in  use,  and  ye> 
this  would  seem  probable.  The  few  illustrations  here  given  (Figs 
343,  344,  345)  are  from  Corinthian  pinaces  (tablets),  dating  prob- 
ably from  the  seventh  century 
B.C.,  and  represent  a  rather 
primitive  type  of  machine.  In 
the  manufacture,  however,  of 
the  extremely  delicate  and  re- 
fined shapes  which  are  found 
among  the  vases  of  the  best 
period,  a  more  perfect  method 
of  controlling  the  wheel  was 
probably  in  use,  but  of  this  we 


FIG.  343.  —  Pinax,  Berlin.     Ant.  Denk. 
I,  PI.  8,  No.  17. 


have   no   definite   information.1 
The  wheel  once  set  in  motion 

eXawftv),  the  potter  proceeded  to  draw  (eX/ceic)  the  paste 
to  the  required  thickness  and  to  shape  it  as  the  modern  workman 
does.  Large  vases  were  fashioned  in  sections,  which  were  after- 
ward joined  together  on  the  wheel,  usually  with  great 
skill.  The  handles,  too,  were  made  separately, 
as  were  also,  in  the  case  of  the  larger 
vases,  the  foot  and  mouth.  How 
far  moulds  may  have  been 
used  in  shaping  the 
handles,  it  is 

impossi-    ^^'-  .  \ 

ble 


FIG.  344. —  Pinax,  Berlin.    Ant.  Denk.  I,  PI.  8,  No.  18. 

1  Figure  350  shows  the  wheel  being  turned  by  a  helper,  and  a  similar  and 
somewhat  clearer  representation  of  the  same  process  may  be  found  on  the 
fragment  of  a  vase  from  the  Acropolis,  published  Ath.  Mitt.,  14  (1889), 
p.  157. 


VASES 


423 


to  say,  but  the  elaborate  work  which  appears  upon  these  in  some 
cases  (for  example,  the  Francois  vase,  p.  474)  presupposes  a 
good  deal  of  free-hand  modelling.  Nowhere  does  the  potter's  art 
appear  to  greater  advantage  than  in  the  attachment  of  the  handles, 
which  in  the  better  specimens  rise  out  of  the  body  of  the  vase  so 
gradually  that  they  seem  really  an  original  part  of  it,  adding  dis- 
tinctly to  the  beauty  of  the  general  outline.  So  firmly  are  they 
joined  that  a  breakage  rarely  occurs  at  the  point  of  juncture. 
When  the  shaping  of  the  vase  was  thus  completed  by  the  addition 
of  the  separate  parts,  it  was  allowed  to  dry,  and  some  authorities 
believe  it  to  have  been 
then  subjected  to  the  first 
firing  (oTTTav)  at  a  low 
temperature,  before  the 
process  of  decoration  took 
place.  There  are,  how- 
ever, strong  reasons  for 
adopting  the  view  recently 
advanced1  that  the  deco- 
rator's work  began  before 
any  firing  at  all,  when  the 
vase  was  "  leather-hard.  " 
However  this  may  be,  it  will  be  most  convenient  in  this  brief  dis- 
cussion of  technique  to  treat  of  that  which  lies  in  the  province  of 
the  potter  rather  than  of  the  painter,  by  itself,  and  hence  to  speak 
of  the  kiln  before  passing  on  to  the  subject  of  decoration. 

Here,  again,  definite  information  is  lacking.     From  the  illus- 
rations  which  have  been  preserved,  chiefly  among  the  Corinthian 
pinaces,  the  kiln  appears  to  have  been  a  dome-like 
structure,  with  a  kind  of  projection  at  the  base  of  the 
fire  chamber  through  which  the  fire  could  be  poked,  and  upon  which 
a  person  might  sometimes  stand  to  reach  the  opening  at  the  top  of 
the  dome  ( Figs.  346-350) .    Several  illustrations  show  a  man  appar- 
ently using  his  poker  at  the  top  opening,  and  as  the  fire  is  often 
1  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  pp.  152  and  45. 


FIG.  345.  —  Pinax,  Louvre.     Gaz.  Arch.    VI 
(1880),  p.  106. 


Kilns 


424 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


represented  as  blazing  up  out  of  this,  we  may  suppose  that  the 
attendant  is  seeking  in  some  way  to  check  the  draught,  since  in  this 


FlG.  346.  —  Pinax,  Louvre.     Gaz,  Arch.  VI  (1880),  p.  105. 

place  he  could  hardly  be  poking  the  fire.     There  was  a  door  in  the 
side  of  the  dome  through  which  the  oven  was  no  doubt  reached,  and 


FIG.  347.  —  Pinax,  Louvre.     Gaz.  Arch.  VI  (1880),  p.  106. 

Figure  349  shows  a  number  of  vases  inside.     That  they  were  al- 
ways crowded  together  in  the  fashion  here  represented  is  not  to  be 


VASES 


425 


supposed,  yet  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  injuries  to  vases  may 
occasionally  be  observed,  the  origin  of  which  is  apparently  to 
be  found  in  their 
having  come  in 
contact  with  one 
another  through 
crowding  in  the 
kiln.  Imperfec- 
tions due  to  defec- 
tive arrangements 
in  firing  are  fre- 
quently to  be  seen, 
though  at  the  best 
period  of  the  Attic 
red-figured  tech- 
nique they  are  rare. 

FIG.  348.  —  Pinax,  Berlin.    Ant.  Denk.  I,  PI.  8,  No.  22. 
and  it  is  clear  that 

great  care  must  have  been  taken  at  that  time  in  this  part  of  the 
process  of  manufacture.1     Of  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  flues 

we  know  little, 
though  some  idea 
of  what  this  was 
may  perhaps  be 
gathered  from  the 
remains  of  Roman 
kilns.2  It  would 
seem  "likely  that 
the  structure  was 
at  best  somewhat 

FIG.  349.  —  Pin..x,  Berlin.     Ant.  Denk.  I,  PI.  8.  No.  19  b.        primitive,  and  that 

1  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  pp.  153  f.,  on  the  general  subject  of  defects 
in  firing.     The  ruins  of  a  kiln,  probably  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  have  re- 
cently been  found  in  Attica.    These  confirm  in  the  main  the  impression  made 
by  the  pictures  of  \}ne  pinaces  ;  cp.  Ath.  Mitt.,  1908,  pp.  177-184. 

2  Cp.  Blumner,  Technologic,  etc.,  II,  pp.  23  ft 


426  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

a  good  result  in  firing  demanded  much  care  and  fidelity  on 
the  part  of  the  person  in  charge  of  the  kiln.  In  the  representa- 
tion of  Figure  350  we  see  a  mask  affixed  to  it,  no  doubt  as  an 
apotropaeum  to  ward  off  bad  luck,  which  might  prevent  a  good 
result  to  the  work. 

As  regards  the  various  processes  involved  in  the  decoration  of 
vases,  even  the  most  careful  observers  are  not  always  in  agree- 
ment, and  since  the  order  of  procedure  in  some  details 
Decoration  .... 

may  vary  at  different  periods,  it  is  probably  impossible 

to  give  a  general  description  which  shall  cover  all  specific  examples. 


FIG.  350. —  Hydria,  Munich.    Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  159. 

When  the  vase  had  been  sufficiently  dried,  its  surface  must  have 
been  smoothed  by  rubbing,  very  likely  with  a  piece  of  wood  or 
leather.1  This  process  is  apparently  represented  in  Figure  351,  and 
a  further  stage  is  illustrated  in  the  same  picture  by  the  two  black 
vases  shown,  which  have  already  been  painted  over  with  varnish. 
The  polishing  was  intended  to  improve  the  surface  of  the  vase 
for  the  drawing.  Speaking  generally,  there  were  two  different  sys- 
tems of  decoration  :  the  first,  in  which  figures  appear  dark  upon  a 
light  background  (black-figured  technique),  the  second,  in  which 

1  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  152,  where  an  experiment  is  reported, 
showing  the  condition  of  a  vase  at  this  stage  before  any  firing.  Its  surface 
would  apparently  have  been  sufficiently  tough  to  withstand  rubbing. 


VASES 


427 


these  relations  are  reversed  (red-figured  technique).     A  third  sys- 
tem, which  will  come  up  for  special  mention  later,  and  which  is  in 
some  ways  allied  to  the  second,  is  to  be  seen  in  the  white  vases 
with  outline  drawing.    From  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  middle 
and  latter  part   of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  —  the  period  of  the 
Pisistratids  at  Athens  —  it  was  the  practice  to  paint    Black. 
ornaments  and  figures  in  black  silhouette,  either  di-    figured 
rectly  on  the  surface  of  the  vase,  or,  in  some  cases,  on    techni<lue 
a  light-colored  slip.     The   method  in  use  at  Athens  during  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  will   be 
taken  as  typical  in  describ- 
ing this  technique,  and  the 
chief  variations  from  it  will 
be  noticed  in  the  later  dis- 
cussion    of    the    different 
styles  of  vase-painting. 

The  distribution  of  the 
design  on  the  surface  of  the 
vase,  was  naturally  the  first 
problem  which  presented 
itself  to  the  painter.  In  a 
complicated  scheme,  like 
that,  for  example,  on  the 
Francois  vase  (p.  474),  this 


FIG.  35 1.  —  Cylix,  Berlin.     Rayet  and  Collig- 
non,  Histoire,  etc.,  p.  xvii,  Fig.  7. 


would  have  been  a  very 
difficult  matter,  and  it  has  recently  been  suggested  that  the  painter 
must  have  used  a  pattern  vase,  in  size  similar  to  the  one  he  was 
working  on.1  We  have,  however,  no  certain  knowledge  of  any- 
thing of  the  kind,  and  the  method  of  such  preliminary  sketching  as 
was  probably  employed  by  the  painters  in  the  black-figured  tech- 
nique is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The  fact  that  this  sketch  in  black 
silhouette-painting  would  in  the  end  be  quite  covered  up,  and 
that  minor  errors  in  it  might  be  concealed  by  slight  changes  in 
the  design,  makes  the  detection  of  the  process,  whatever  it  was, 
1  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  13. 


428  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

practically  impossible.  When  the  design  had  been  satisfactorily 
arranged,  the  figures  were  sketched  in  outline  and  filled  in  with 
the  black  varnish.  The  silhouette  which  was  thus  formed  was 
at  first  probably  somewhat  smaller  than  the  intended  figure,  and 
was  enlarged  to  the  desired  size  by  further  application  of  the 
brush.1  The  next  step  was  the  addition  of  details,  since  the 
action  of  silhouette  figures,  especially  if  they  appear  in  compli- 
cated groups,  is  difficult  to  make  out.2  These  details  were 
introduced  by  means  of  incised  lines,  which  were  cut  with  a  sharp 
instrument  through  the  black  varnish,  as  yet  not  fully  hardened, 
into  the  surface  of  the  clay  itself.  The  outline  of  the  figures, 
except  where  they  may  cross  one  another,  is  commonly  not  incised, 
though  instances  of  this  practice  may  be  found  carried  out  in  part  or 
wholly,  as  in  the  vases  of  the  potter  Andocides.  An  instance  of  this 
may  also  be  seen  on  the  fine  "Ionic"  hydria  shown  in  Figures 
379  and  380.  The  incised  lines  in  good  examples  are  drawn 
with  great  firmness  and  delicacy,  and  show  much  of  the  skill 
which  is  so  greatly  admired  in  the  so-called  "  relief-lines "  of  the 
red-figured  technique.  In  some  cases  there  appears  to  have 
been  a  kind  of  preliminary  sketch  for  the  process  of  incising  the 
lines,3  but  this  is  true  in  no  such  general  sense  as  for  th~  line 
drawing  of  red-figured  vases,  where  the  sketch  both  for  outline 
and  interior  drawing  was  the  rule  in  all  careful  work.  The  effect 
of  such  decoration  as  has  been  described,  consisting  solely  of 
silhouettes,  with  incised  details,  would  of  course  have  been  rather 
dull  and  sombre,  but  in  reality  many  black-figured  vases  must 
have  had  a  distinctly  gay  and  brilliant  appearance.  This  was 
effected  by  the  addition  of  colors  superimposed  upon  the  black — 
white,  light  brown,  and  various  shades  of  red  and  purple  being 

1  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  13;  cp.  PI.  4,  where  above,  at  the  right, 
the  silhouette  is  represented. 

2  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  106,  for  the  representation  of  a  com- 
plicated silhouette. 

8  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  pp.  14 and  24;  cp.  PI.  4,  where  above,  at 
the  left,  such  a  sketch  is  given. 


VASES  429 

found.1  Authorities  do  not  agree  as  to  the  question  whether 
these  colors  were  added  after  the  black  had  been  hardened  by 
firing,  or  not.  It  is  at  any  rate  certain  that  they  are  by  no  means 
as  hard  as  the  black,  that  they  show  less  lustre,  and  that  they 
have  to-day  in  many  cases  disintegrated  and  fallen  off,  disclosing 
the  black  beneath.  Such  a  condition  of  affairs  suggests  the 
possibility  of  their  having  been  somewhat  hardened  by  a  second 
process  of  firing  subsequent  to  that  which  hardened  the  black. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vase  was  not  fired  before  the  super- 
imposed colors  were  added,  we  must  believe  with  Reichhold  that 
the  work  of  manufacture  was  completed  by  the  firing,  and  that 
this  took  place  but  once  in  the  entire  process. 

The  nature  of  the  glaze  which  is  to  be  seen  on  the  finished  vase 
in  both  the  black-  and  red-figured  styles,  and  the  method  of  its 
application,  raise  puzzling  questions  about  which  there  is  as  yet 
no  general  agreement.2  The  glaze  which  we  have  on  modern 
pjttery,  a  combination  of  oxide  of  lead  with  clay  or  sand,3  and 
which  is  believed  to  have  come  into  Europe  as  an  Arabian  inven- 
tion in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  is  not  found  on  Greek 
vases.  These,  indeed,  often  show  a  high  lustre,  but  the  impres- 
sion made  is  hardly  that  of  a  coating  over  the  vase,  and  some 
persons  have  contended  that  the  lustre  of  the  unpainted  surfaces, 
which  is  distinctly  less  high  than  that  of  the  black  varnish,  is  simply 

1  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  1 2,  state  that  on  the  Francois  vase  the  white, 
or  most  of  it,  is  laid  on  directly  upon  the  clay,  and  that  this  is  also  true  of  one 
shade  of  red.     In  general,  however,  these  colors  were  superimposed. 

2  Quite  recently  Dr.  O.  S.  Tonks  of  Princeton  has  made  a  valuable  study  of 
the  question  (A.J.A.,  Xll,  1908,  pp.  417  ff.),  and  has  reached  the  conclusion 
by  careful  experiment  that  a  glaze  identical  with  that  on  Greek  vases  may  be 
produced  by  a  combination  of  eight  parts  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  one  of  clay 
(pipe  clay  was  used)  fritted  together,  and  then  mixed  in  the  proportions  of 
two  parts  of  frit  to  one  of  ferrous  oxide. 

^3  Bliimner,  Technologic,  II,  p.  89.  Vitrified  glaze  was  known  in  Myce- 
naean times  and  in  Assyria  and  Egypt,  and  may  have  been  imitated  in  rare 
instances  by  Greeks,  but  the  process  appears  to  be  distinctly  foreign  to  real 
Greek  work.  Cp.  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Histoire,  Chap.  XXI. 


430  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  result  of  polishing  by  rubbing.  The  recent  investigations  of 
Reichhold,  however,  appear  to  prove  the  incorrectness  of  this 
view,1  and  to  show  that  a  thin,  transparent  wash  was  used  on  _ the 
surface  of  the  vase,  which  not  only  heightened  its  lustre,  but 
which  also,  through  the  coloring  matter  that  it  sometimes  con- 
tained,2 deepened  the  reddish  hue  of  the  unpainted  parts  of  the 
clay.  The  black  varnish,  however,  without  doubt,  has  a  lustre  of 
its  own,  apart  from  any  further  application.  But  it  is  by  no  means 
always  clear  exactly  how  or  at  what  stage  of  manufacture  this 
wash  was  applied.  There  are  reasons  for  thinking  that  in  some 
cases  this  took  place  before  the  incised  lines  were  drawn ; s  on  the 
other  hand,  there  are  examples  of  Attic  vases  of  the  later  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C.  and  of  vases  from  lower  Italy,  upon  which  the  application 
of  the  wash  was  the  last  thing  to  be  done.  It  seems  clear,  too, 
from  some  instances  that  a  brush  was  used  in  the  process.4  That 
the  vase  itself  was  ever  dipped  in  a  solution,  as  has  sometimes 
been  thought,  seems  improbable. 

In  the  red- figured  technique,  the  figures  appear,  as  has  already 
been  said,  light  upon  a  dark  background.     Here  the  painter  be- 
Red-  8an  tne  Process  °f  decoration  by  tracing  with  a  blunt- 

figured  pointed  instrument  in  the  partially  hardened  clay 
ec  mque  ^e  prei{mjnary  sketch.  The  general  nature  of  this 
may  frequently,  usually  indeed,  be  made  out  by  careful  exami- 
nation, for,  although  the  indentations  of  the  instrument  used 
are  very  slight,  the  reddish  color  contained  in  the  glaze-wash 
has  a  tendency  to  collect  in  the  depressions,  and  thus  faintly 
to  indicate  their  direction.5  The  sketches  often  differ  consid- 
erably from  the  final  forms  of  the  figures,  but,  even  where  this 

1  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  index  s.v.  Technik  ("Lasur")-     Cp.  also 
Perrot  and  Chipiez,  ffistoire,  VII,  p.  218. 

2  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  181. 

3  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  p.  26. 

4  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  pp.  54,  140,  145,  267. 

5  Furtwangler  and  Reichhold  have  given  several  reproductions,  both  on 
their  plates  and  in  their  text,  of  such  sketches. 


VASES 


FIG.  352.  —  Fragment,  Berlin.  Jahrb.  d.  Inst., 
14.  P- 165. 


is  the  case,  they  were  no  doubt  sufficient  to  be  of  material  assist- 
ance in  the  distribution  of  the  design.  When  this  had  once  been 
determined,  the  painter  next  drew  with  a  brush l  the  outlines ;  but 
these  were  traced  outside  of  the  spaces  designed  for  the  figures, 
and  not  inside,  as  in  the 
black-figured  technique  (cp. 
Fig-  35 2>  a  partly  finished 
drawing).  Thus  a  red  sil- 
houette and  not  a  black 
one  was  formed.  In  out- 
lining the  figures  a  narrow 
flat  line  of  thinned  varnish 
appears  to  have  been  em- 
ployed, though  at  the  period 
when  the  use  of  what  is 
known  as  the  "  relief-line  " 
was  at  its  height,  it  may 
now  and  then  be  a  question  whether  this  alone  was  not  used  to 
trace  the  outlines  and  the  flat  line  of  thinned  varnish  omitted. 
To  make  this  technical  question  clear,  however,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary briefly  to  explain  the  use  and  nature  of  the  "  relief-line." 

Toward  the  later  part  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  in  the  red-figured 
technique  and  indeed,  though  rarely,  also  on  black-figured  vases,2 
a  fine  line  appears  which  is  slightly  in  relief.  Some-  Relief-lines 
times  this  has  a  kind  of  groove  in  the  middle  of  it,  so  and  outlines 
that  it  seems  almost  double  and  again  it  shows  a  single  well-defined 
edge  ;  but  in  distinction  from  an  ordinary  flat  line  of  varnish,  such, 
for  example,  as  frequently  frames  the  picture  on  a  vase,  it  stands 

1  A  few  instances  of  the  survival  of  the  incised  line  exist  in  the  red-figured 
technique,  but  they  are  sporadic.     Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  PI.  32,  I,  Text,  pp. 
168,  171,  and  R.  Norton,  A.J.A.,  XI  (1896),  p.  12.     Such  examples  as  these 
here  cited  are  very  rare,  but  in  the  early  stages  of  red-figured  work  it  is  not 
uncommon  that  the  outline  of  the  heads  of  figures  should  be  separated  from 
the  background  by  an  incised  line  which  is  often  wavy. 

2  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  pp.  165,  167. 


432  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

out  perceptibly  from  the  surface.1  Now  about  500  B.C.,  or  some- 
what earlier,  this  is  the  quality  of  line  which  the  vase-painters  use  for 
the  interior  drawing  of  muscles,  drapery,  etc.,  and  often  for  the 
outline  of  the  red  silhouette.  But  it  comes  into  use  gradually,  and, 
except  in  the  work  of  the  painters  in  the  best  period  of  the  so-called 
"  severe  style,"  it  is  not  always  found  on  every  part  of  the  decora- 
tion. Where  it  was  omitted  the  practice  of  the  painter  was  un- 
questionably to  outline  the  silhouette  first  with  a  narrow  flat  line, 
using  a  thin  varnish,  so  that  the  line  is  dull ;  that  is,  lacks  lustre 
(matt}.  Where,  however,  the  relief-line  is  used  to  define  the 
outline,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  say  in  most  cases  whether  it  is 
not  laid  on  over  a  previously  drawn  flat  line.  Excellent  observers 
maintain  that  this  was  the  invariable  practice,  and  it  certainly 
appears  to  have  been  the  common  one,  but  there  seem  to  be  a 
few  examples  where  the  relief-line  alone  may  have  been  used 
to  define  the  outline  of  the  figures.2 

The  omission  of  the  relief-outline  becomes  more   and  more 
common  after  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  in 

1  There  has  been  much  discussion  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  implement  with 
which  this  line  was  produced.     Hartwig  in  an  admirable  essay  (Jahrb.  d.  Inst., 
14  (1899),  pp.  147  ff.)  has  argued  that  the  painters  used  a  small  feather  of  the 
snipe.     Reichhold,  on  the  other  hand  (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Text,  passim,  but 
especially  pp.   148  and  230),  after  many  careful  experiments  in  which  his 
opinion  underwent  considerable  change,  believes  that  the  line  was  produced  by 
a  single  bristle  which  was,  of  course,  flexible,  and  which  after  being  dipped  in 
the  varnish  could  be  drawn  {schleppeti)  along  the  surface  of  the  vase,  thus  dis- 
tributing the  color  not  simply  with  its  point  but  also  with  its  length.     By 
such  a  method  he  believes  that  the  remarkable  freedom  and  firmness  of  the 
lines  can  be  accounted  for.     The  consistency  of  the  varnish,  which,  no  doubt, 
was  not  always  the  same,  had  its  influence  in  producing  some  of  the  results 
which  may  be  observed  on  the  vases.     Tonks  (see  note  2,  p.  429)  reports  in- 
teresting experiments  in  producing  the  relief-line.     He  could  get  no  satisfac- 
tory result  with  a  bristle,  but  succeeded  when   using  an  ordinary  pen  or  a 
quill  pen.     Figure  353  shows  a  painter  decorating  a  cylix. 

2  Cp.  Hartwig,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  14  (1899),  p.  162,  who  denies  that  the  flat 
line  was  ever  dispensed  with.     His  article  is  of  great  value  for  the  general 
study  of  technique. 


VASES  433 

some  Apulian  vases,  for  example,  only  the  lines  of  the  interior 
drawing  appear  in  relief,  unless  these  for  any  exceptional  reason 
are  continued  to  the  outline.1 

When  this,  the  first  outline,  was  complete,  a  broader  line  which 
may  be  called  the  contour-stripe  was  painted  over  it  or  painted 
up  to  it,  in  case  the  relief-line  was  used.  This  enclosing  stripe  no 
doubt  served  as  a  protection  to  the  outline  of  the  figures  when 
the  background  came  to  be  filled  in  with  black  varnish  (Fig.  352). 
If  a  vase  is  turned  to  the  light  at  the  proper  angle,  it  is  almost 
always  possible  to  trace  the  course  of  this  contour-stripe  and  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  rest  of  the  background.  In  forgeries  it  is 
rarely  successfully  imitated,  so  that  it  is  an  important  thing  to 
look  for  in  determining  the  genuineness  of  a  vase. 

After  the  outlines  of  the  figures  had  been  protected  by  the 
painting  of  the  contour-stripe,  there  remained  only  two  important 
steps  before  the  firing  of  the  vase  ;  namely,  the  drawing  of  the 
details  within  the  silhouette,  —  the  faces,  lines  of  the  muscles, 
drapery,  etc.,  —  and  the  filling  in  of  the  background.  Thus  the 
sequence  of  processes  would  normally  be  as  follows :  (i)  the  pre- 
liminary sketch  with  a  dull-pointed  instrument ;  (2)  the  outlining 
of  the  figures  with  a  narrow,  dull,  flat  line  (at  the  height  of  the 
"  severe  style  "  it  is  possible  that  a  relief-line  was  sometimes  sub- 
stituted for  this)  ;  (3)  the  laying  on  of  the  contour-stripe;  (4)  the 
drawing  of  details  (faces,  muscles,  drapery,  etc.)  in  relief-lines, 
and  the  adding  of  the  relief-outline  when  this  was  used ;  (5)  the 
filling  in  of  the  background  with  black  varnish,  which  covers  up 
the  thin,  flat  line  of  the  outline  and  is  painted  close  up  to  the 
relief-outline,  where  this  is  used ;  (6)  firing.2 

One  cannot  too  greatly  admire  the  skill  with  which  in  the  best 
examples  this  inner  drawing  of  the  details  was  done.  The  firm- 
ness and  delicacy  of  the  relief-lines,  drawn  often  to  great  length 
without  a  break,  certainly  show  a  power  in  rapid  free-hand  draw- 
ing which  is  little  short  of  marvellous,  and  we  should  remember, 

1  Cp.  the  Apulian  amphora  in  Boston,  A.J.A.,  XII  (1908),  pp.  406  ff. 

2  For  transparent  wash,  see  pp.  429  ff. 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  28 


434 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


too,  that  this  ability  is   manifested   by  handicraftsmen.     Surely 
many  of  them  deserve   to  be  styled  artists.     Almost  the   same 

scene  may  indeed  ap- 
pear on  two  or  more 
vases,  and  yet  the 
copies  are  never  quite 
alike,  so  that  the 
painter  seems  to  have 
worked,  even  in  such 
cases,  with  some  free- 
dom.1 Figures  353 
and  354  are  interest- 
ing representations  of 
the  painter  at  work 
and  reveal  the  fact 
that  he  held  his  brush 

as    the    Japanese    do 
FIG.  353.  —  Cylix.    Boston.    (Jahrb.d.  Inst.,  14,  PI.  4.) 

between  forenngerand 

thumb, 'but  turning  the  little  finger  toward  the  brush  end.     With 
the  filling  in  of  the  background  the  decoration  of  the  vase  was 


FIG.  354.  —  Hydria.    Ruvo.   (Annali  dell'  Inst.,  1876,  Tav.  d"  agg.  D,  E.) 

1  An  interesting  unsigned  copy  or  replica  of  a  signed  cylix  by  Aristophanes 
/Fig.  396)  is  to  be  seen  in  Boston  (Museum  Report,  1900,  p.  49).  Cp.  p.  447, 
note  3. 


VASES 


435 


complete,  except  for  the  occasional  addition  of  some  colored 
accessories.  In  red-figured  vases  these  include  only  some  minor 
details,  though  as  this  technique  advances,  it  becomes  more  elabo- 
rate, and  additional  colors  and  gilding  occur  not  infrequently. 
As  in  the  black-figured  vases,  it  seems  doubtful  whether  more  than 
a  single  firing  was  customary,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
additional  colors  were  fixed  at  a  second  firing. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  a  third  variety  of  technique 
which  was  practised,  especially  at  Athens,  during  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  and  a  little  later ;  that,  namely,  of  drawing  in  deli-  xhe  white 
cate  lines  on  a  white  ground.  This  is  really  a  kind  of  ground 
extension  of  a  system  the  beginnings  of  which  may  be  traced  to  a 
considerably  earlier  time  in  the  technique  that  involved  covering 
the  surface  of  the  vase  with  a  light-colored  slip  upon  which  a  black 
silhouette  was  painted.  We  find,  for  example,  in  "Rhodian"  vase- 
decoration,  and  on  the  sarcophagi  from  Clazomenae  (p.  461),  some 
small  portions  of  the  design  which  are  merely  outline  drawings  on 
a  light  ground  (sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "  silhouette  transpa- 
rente"),and  these  are  simply  rather  rude  examples  of  the  process 
which  later  in  Athenian  hands  produced  results  of  extraordinary 
beauty.1  In  the  best  examples  of  this  technique,  with  which  a 
broad  use  of  bright  color  is  often  combined,  are  found  some  of 
the  very  finest  specimens  of  Greek  ceramic  art. 

STYLES 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  the  classification  of  the 
various  styles  of  Greek  vase-painting  is  an  exceedingly  difficult 
matter.  Many  theories  still  unproved  have  to  be  weighed  and 
considered,  and  it  would  be  unwise  to  insist  on  the  finality  of 
some  of  the  views  which  now  prevail.  In  spite  of  the  progress 

1  Two  exceedingly  interesting  specimens  of  this  technique  are  to  be  seen  in 
Boston  (Museum  Report,  1900,  pp.  73-76),  the  one  an  alabastrum,  the  other 
a  covered  cylix.  The  alabastrum  is  of  somewhat  the  earlier  date.  The  cylix 
is  figured  at  p.  508. 


436  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

which  has  been  made  in  recent  years,  the  student  must  hold  him- 
self ready  to  modify  to-day's  opinions  in  the  light  of  the  possible 
discoveries  of  to-morrow.  A  classification  based  on  chronological 
development  is  practically  impossible,  since  different  styles,  even 
in  cases  where  a  later  one  seems  to  derive  its  origin  pretty  directly 
from  one  that  is  earlier,  often  exist  side  by  side  for  a  considerable 
period.  It  is  therefore  simpler  to  adopt  in  the  main  a  classifi- 
cation by  localities,  although  some  deviation  from  this  plan  may 
often  be  necessary.  At  the  very  beginning,  for  example,  in  the 
first  or  Geometric  style  many  regions  are  involved,  nearly  all  of 
which  betray  some  apparently  local  peculiarities. 

Geometric 

Geometric  vases  might  very  properly  be  classed  in  part  as 
examples  of  prehistoric  Greek  art,  since  there  is  no  doubt  that 
this  type  of  decoration  existed  in  primitive  rudeness  side  by  side 
with  vases  of  Mycenaean  workmanship.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
later  limits  of  the  developed  style  extend  down  in  all  probability 
to  about  the  time  of  the  first  Olympiad,  and  the  influence  of 
the  Attic  Geometric  or  Dipylon  style  is  clearly  to  be  seen  on 
other  vases  which  are  contemporary  with  or  subsequent  to  this 
period.1  It  is  therefore  more  convenient  to  treat  it  as  the  earliest 
of  the  Greek  styles  of  vase-painting  in  distinction  from  the 
decoration  which  is  classed  as  Mycenaean; 

Geometric  decoration  is  a  characteristic  manifestation  of  art 
among  many  primitive  peoples  all  over  the  world.  Thus,  as  might 
be  expected,  the  primitive  pottery  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean 

1  The  chronological  development  within  the  Geometric  style  is  still  imper- 
fectly understood.  The  Geometric  oenochoe  (Ath.  Mitt.,  6  (1881),  PI.  3  = 
Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Figs.  2073,  2074,  and  Ath.  Mitt.,  18  (1893),  pp.  225 
ft". ),  which  has  scratched  upon  it  what  is  believed  to  be  the  earliest  Attic  in- 
scription, might  be  of  help  here  if  we  could  be  sure  that  the  inscription  was 
as  old  as  the  vase.  Cp.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire,  VII,  p.  224,  and  S. 
Wide,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  14  (1899),  pp.  26  ff.,  78  ff.,  15  (1900),  pp.  55  ff. 


VASES  437 

in  its  ruder  forms  shows  schemes  of  ornament  which  are  often  of 
a  geometric  type.  Not,  however,  until  the  decline  of  the  Myce- 
naean civilization  does  this  instinct  for  geometric  decoration 
come  in  contact  with  a  sufficient  artistic  impulse  to  manifest 
itself  in  what  may  truly  be  called  a  style  of  ceramic  art.  Even 
in  Athens,  where  the  style  reaches  its  highest  development  under 
the  specific  designation  of  "  Dipylon,"  derived  from  the  city  gate 
of  this  name  near  which  much  of  the  pottery  has  been  found,  it  is 
always  rude  and  primitive,  vastly  ruder  than  good  Mycenaean 
work,  and  yet  it  betrays  a  growing  power  of  imagination  and  an 
enlarged  conception  of  the  sources  of  pictorial  decoration.  Here 
first,  in  the  Dipylon  Geometric,  we  begin  to  see  manifested  in  the 
work  of  the  potter  that  interest  in  human  activity  and  experience 
which  is  so  characteristic  of  both  the  minor  and  major  Greek  art 
of  a  later  age.  Grotesque  and  primitive  as  the  Dipylon  men  and 
women  and  animals  are,  their  portrayal  by  the  vase  decorators 
suggests  an  originality  which  is  full  of  promise  for  the  future. 

As  has  already  been  remarked,  the  Geometric  style  betrays 
many  local  peculiarities  that  seem  to  reflect  the  different  tradi- 
tions of  decoration  under  which  the  potters  worked.  , 

r  111  Local  types 

In  Crete,  for  example,  the  style  appears  to  have  re- 
mained in  a  comparatively  primitive  state,  owing,  it  has  been 
thought,  to  the  persistence  of  Mycenaean  influence,  which  tended 
to  prevent  the  free  development  into  more  artistic  form  of  the  rude 
and  primitive  geometric  patterns  ;  in  Melos  Mycenaean  influence  is 
still  strong,  though  here  there  are  good  examples  of  geometric 
work ;  in  Attica  the  independent  development  is  more  marked,  and 
so  on.  As  to  shape,,  the  vases  vary  very  greatly,  from  the  immense 
grave  amphorae  of  the  Dipylon  style 1  to  ordinary  portable  house- 
hold ware.  The  clay,  too,  shows  considerable  variety  ;  that  of  the 
Attic  vases,  which  is  pinkish  in  tone,  is  of  better  quality  than  is 
usually  found  elsewhere,  and  is  more  carefully  prepared.  In 
some  places  the  vases  are  treated  with  a  slip  upon  which  the 

1  Cp.  the  large  amphora  in  the  Bartlett  collection  in  Boston  and  the  great 
vase  from  Curium  in  Cyprus,  in  New  York. 


438 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


patterns  are  painted.  The  varnish  used,  which  varies  in  color 
from  brownish  black  to  reddish  brown,  has  but  slight  lustre,  ex- 
cept in  a  variety  of  the  Attic  pottery 
known  as  "  Black  Dipylon."  Here  the 
undecorated  surfaces  of  the  vases  ar<r 
covered  with  a  black  paint  that  contains 
considerable  glaze. 

Several  differing  types  are  shown  in 
the  illustrations.  Figure  355  is  a  form 
not  uncommon  in  the  island  of  Thera. 
The  lower  part  of  the  vase  is  decorated 
with  simple  parallel  bands  which  encircle 
it,  and  the  principal  pattern  is  on  the 
shoulder  and  neck.  A  light  yellow  slip 
is  ordinarily  used  on  the  surface  of  these 
vases,  and  the  wheel  ornament,  though 
not  invariably  found,  is  yet  characteristic 
of  Theran  geometric  ware.1  A  specimen 


FlG.  355.  —  Amphora.  Ath- 
ens. (Jahrb.  d.  lust.,  14, 
1899,  p.  32,  Fig.  8.  h. 
0.77  m.) 


of  a  Boeotian  vase  is  given  in  Figure  356.     Here  the  work  is  as  a 

whole  ruder.     A  whitish  slip  in  many  instances  covers  the  some- 

what rough  surface  of  the  clay  and 

there  is  comparatively  little  variety 

in  the  pattern  motives.   The  mean- 

der, so  effective  in  geometric  deco- 

ration   as    a   whole,    seems    to   be 

entirely  lacking.    Animals  and  occa- 

sionally  human   beings   are   found, 

and  such  a  flying  bird  as  the  illus- 

tration   shows    appears   rather   fre- 

quently.  A  floral  element  also  occa- 

sionally appears  in  the  decoration 

(cp.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire,  VII,  p.  214,  Fig.  94),  which 

lends  it  a  character  foreign  to  most  geometric  work.     The  near- 

1  See  Tkera,  Vol.  II  (Dragendorfi).     Important  for  the  Geometric  vases  in 
general. 


FlG.  356. —  Boeotian  bowl.    Bos- 
ton,   (h.  0.253  m.   Photograph.) 


VASES 


439 


ness  of  Attica  unquestionably 
made  Attic  importations  common 
iu  Boeotia,  and  a  good  deal  of 
Dipylon  pottery  has  been  found 
there  ;  but  there  is,  nevertheless, 
good  reason  for  believing  in  the 
indigenous  character  of  the  Boeo- 
tian Geometric  decoration. 

In  turning  to  the  Dipylon  ware 
of  Attica  we  meet  the  most  inter- 
esting variety  of  Greek 
Geometric  pottery. 
In  spite  of  the  grotesqueness  of 
many  of  the  scenes  represented, 
the  great  sepulchral  vases,  which 


Dipylon 


FIG.  357.  —  Dipylon  crater.  Athens. 
(Ath.  Mitt.,  18,  1893,  p.  92,  Fig.  4. 
h.  0.95  m.) 


are  the  most  important  specimens  of  this  class,  are  striking  exam- 
ples of  the  potter's  art.1  There  is 
in  their  decoration  a  distinct  indi- 
cation of  a  growing  power  to  com- 
bine elements  of  design  already 
known  into  larger  schemes,  and  a 
certain  flavor  of  originality  which 
suggests  vigor.  It  is  therefore  in 
no  way  surprising  that  they  form 
the  first  step  in  the  development 
of  Attic  ceramic  art  and  that  their 
influence  may  clearly  be  seen  in 
succeeding  generations.  Figure 
358,  an  often  published  vase  in 
Athens,  illustrates  a  scene  fre- 
quently and  appropriately  depicted 

1  Cp.   Figure  357  for  one   of  these 
vases  in  position  on  a  grave.    In  general 
FIG.  358.  -  Dipylon  crater.  Athens.       see  P°ulsen,  Die  Dipylongraber  und  die 
(Monumenti,  IX,  Pis.  39, 40.    h.  1.21  m.)    Dipylonvasen. 


440 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


on  these  vases  —  a  funeral  procession  (eK<f>opa)  with  bands  of 
mourners.  The  chariots  in  the  lower  row  we  may  perhaps  con- 
ceive of  as  ready  to  take  part  in  the  funeral  games.  Some- 
times the  mourning  takes  place  around  the  couch  upon  which  the 
dead  person  is  laid  out  (rrpodea-L^),  a  situation  well  shown  in  the 
fine  fragment  published  by  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Histoire,  p.  27, 
Fig.  19.  The  same  scene  is  depicted  later  in  Athenian  ceramic 
art.1  Thus  even  in  the  rude  Dipylon  style  we  see  that  intense 
interest  in  things  human  which  is  so  characteristic  of  Greek 
thought  in  all  its  forms.2  Besides  funeral  scenes  and  others  of  a 
more  or  less  genre  character  the  vase-painters  of  this  period  often 
depicted  nautical  matters.  Figure  359  is  one  of  the  best  illustra- 


FlG.  359.  —From  a  lebes  found  at  Thebes.     British  Museum. 
(Jour.  Hell.  Stud.  19,  1899,  PI.  viii.) 

tions  of  this.  It  has  been  thought  that  a  bireme  is  here  repre- 
sented, but  it  is  more  likely  that,  by  the  primitive  convention 
which  is  often  used  to  make  good  an  inability  to  draw  in  per- 
spective, the  upper  line  of  rowers  really  represents  the  rowers  on 
the  further  side  of  the  ship.  Of  perspective  the  painters  were 
almost  wholly  innocent,  unless  we  may  perhaps  recognize  a  rude 
attempt  at  it  in  the  representation  of  the  further  horse  in  pictures 
of  chariots. 

Figure  360  represents  a  type  of  small  cup  not  uncommon  in 
Dipylon  ware.  It  shows,  too,  in  the  patterns  which  decorate  it, 
much  of  the  close  resemblance  to  textile  work  which  is  evident 

1  Cp.  Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Figs.  217,  2114,  and  2115. 

2  Cp.  Butcher,  Harvard  Lectures,  p.  42. 


VASES 


441 


in  the  grouping  of  the  designs  of  this  style.  So  strong  in  certain 
cases  is  this  resemblance 1  that  a  direct  influence  of  the  weaver 
upon  the  potter  is  often  assumed.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to 
feel  sure  that  this  view  is  entirely  correct,  since  schemes  of 
rectilinear  geometric  decoration  may  be  seen  in  the  ornamenta- 
tion drawn  by  cave-dwellers,2  in  the  work,  that  is,  of  men  who 
were  in  too  primitive  a  condition  to  be  influenced  by  weavers. 
Furthermore,  as  has 
already  been  said,  rude 
geometric  patterns  ex- 
ist in  very  early  pottery 
in  Greek  lands,  so  that 
the  material  was  at 


Fio.  360.  —  Cup  from  Athens,  M.  Collignon's  col- 
lection.   (Rayet  and  Collignon,  Histoire,  Fig.  17.) 


hand  for  the  gradual 
formation  of  what  is 
known  as  the  Geometric  style.  The  precise  influences,  however, 
which  brought  about  the  rise  of  this  style  are  still  largely  a  matter 
of  dispute.  Mycenaean  elements  unquestionably  enter  into  the 
schemes  of  decoration,3  and  yet  as  a  whole  the  effect  of  the  vases 
is  quite  un-Mycenaean.  Some  authorities  have  seen  Egyptian  in- 
fluence here,4  others  emphasize  oriental  elements5  and  others 
attribute  the  type  of  art  to  the  immigrating  Dorians,  who,  if  tradi- 
tion be  true,  gradually  put  an  end  to  the  decaying  Mycenaean 
civilization  somewhere  about  the  twelfth  century  B.C.  This  non- 
Mycenaean  influence,  whatever  its  source  may  have  been,  is  cer- 
tainly strongly  individual  and  shows  itself  not  only  on  vases,  but  in 
other  forms  of  art,  as,  for  example,  on  some  of  the  early  work  in 

1  Cp.  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire,  VII,  Figs.  47  and  51. 

2  Cp.  S.  Wide,  Ath.  Mitt.,  21  (1896),  p.  405. 

8  Besides  works  already  cited,  cp.  S.  Wide,  "  Nachleben  Mykenischer 
Ornamente,"  Ath.  Mitt.,  22  (1897),  and  Bohlau,  "  Friihattische  Vasen,"_/a^r^. 
d.  /tut.,  II  (1887). 

4  Kroker,  "  Die  Dipylon  Vasen,"  Jahrb.  d.  Imt.,  I  (1886). 

6  That  the  Dipylon  vases  show  some  oriental  influences  is  undoubted.  Cp. 
Ath.  Mitt.,  18(1893),  p.  113,  Fig.  10,  and  Ibid.,  20  (1895),  P1-  m>  also  tne 
interesting  vase  in  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire,  VII,  Fig.  66. 


442  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

metal  found  at  Dodona  and  Olympia.1  Very  likely  the  Dorians 
may  have  contributed  something  to  the  new  style,  but  it  is  also  not 
improbable  that  the  disappearance  of  the  Mycenaean  chieftains 
allowed  a  freer  development  to  the  geometric  decoration  already 
established  in  a  rude  form  among  the  peasantry.  Such  a  theory 
will,  at  any  rate,  make  it  easier  to  account  for  local  peculiarities 
of  style.  The  oriental  influence  which  becomes  so  marked  a  little 
later  is  as  yet  quite  subordinated  to  other  elements. 

Proto-Corinthian  and  Corinthian 

After  the  free  Mycenaean  schemes  of  ceramic  decoration  had 
given  way  before  the  Geometric  styles,  another  very  strong  influence, 
which  was  distinctly  oriental  in  character,  asserted 
itself.  Nowhere  does  this  influence  appear  to  have 
been  so  overpowering  as  at  Corinth,  where  vase-painting  at  one 
stage  of  its  development  seems  almost  to  lose  the  Greek  flavor. 
At  first  thought  we  might  expect  that  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  islands  would  have  been  the  regions  to  succumb  most  com- 
pletely to  the  invasion  of  Eastern  schemes  of  decoration,  but  there 
Mycenaean  traditions  were  apparently  a  good  deal  more  persistent, 
and  these  entering,  as  they  no  doubt  did,  more  or  less  directly 
into  the  formation  of  the  various  local  styles,  tended  to  weaken 
the  oriental  influence  more  than  was  the  case  at  Corinth.  Further- 
more, there  is  a  strong  likelihood  that  the  population  of  Corinth 
harbored  many  oriental  traditions,  and  from  an  early  date  it  was 
a  Phoenician  centre  of  trade.  What  more  natural,  therefore,  than 
that  local  tendencies  should  here  be  materially  modified,  and 
that  the  various  importations  by  the  Phoenicians  from  the  East 
should  powerfully  affect  the  development  of  the  potter's  art? 
From  about  the  ninth  down  to  the  sixth  century  B.C.  the  influence 
of  Corinth  was  carried  far  and  wide.  Its  commerce  extended  to 
the  limits  of  the  known  world ;  it  became  the  mother  of  cities, 

1  Cp.  Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  sculpture  grecque,  I,  Fig  41,  and  p.  80 


VASES  443 

as  of  Syracuse  and  Potidaea,  and  from  its  famous  family  of  the 
Bacchiadae  tradition  has  it  that  Tarquin  the  Elder  was  sprung. 
Certainly  the  Corinthian  influence  in  the  gradual  invasion  of  Italy 
by  Greek  ideas — an  invasion  which  shows  itself  nowhere  more 
clearly  than  in  the  vase-painter's  art  —  must  have  been  immense. 
With  the  development  of  this  vigorous  life  at  Corinth,  there  was, 
as  might  be  expected,  a  growth  of  independence  and  a  manifes- 
tation in  art  of  the  influence  of  the  legends  and  traditions  about 
which  the  civilization  of  Greece  grew  up.  Thus,  near  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  the  famous  chest  of  Cypselus1  of 
Corinth,  a  very  thesaurus  of  Greek  legend,  was  dedicated  at  Olym- 
pia.  It  was  not  only  a  manifestation  of  the  skill  of  the  industrial 
artists  of  Corinth,  but  it  may  also  have  exercised  a  great  influence 
in  fixing  the  motives  of  the  vase-painters.  The  strong  orientalizing 
tendency  which  the  Corinthian  vase-painters  show  at  first  is  weak- 
ened as  time  goes  on ;  the  Greek  element  becomes  the  preponder- 
ating one,  and  oriental  schemes  are  relegated  to  a  subordinate 
position.  The  social  history  of  the  city  seems  to  be  reflected  in 
the  work  of  its  artisans. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  certain  that  Corinth  was  the  centre  of  an 
immense  manufacture  of  vases,  which  formed  the  staple  of  a  large 
export  trade,  but  we  should  guard  against  the  inference  that  all 
the  vases  classed  as  Corinthian  were  necessarily  made  in  Corinth. 
No  doubt  there  were  other  centres  of  manufacture  dominated  by 
Corinthian  tradition.  The  important  celebae,  for  example,  found 
at  Caere  in  Italy,  are  very  likely  of  local  manufacture,  and  the 
class  of  oenochoae,  an  example  of  which  is  figured  on  page  78  of 
Rayet  and  Collignon's  Histoire,  is  generally  held  to  be  of  Italian 
origin.  There  is  also  good  evidence  that  "  Corinthian "  vases 
were  made  in  Boeotia.  "  Corinthian  "  tradition  thus  probably  in- 
volves many  elements,  and  its  history  is  little  understood. 

Before  turning  to  a  more  detailed  consideration  of  the  style,  it 
wili  be  necessary  to  discuss  briefly  an  interesting  and  puzzling 

-  Co.  H.  Stuart  Jones,  Jour,  of  Hell.  Stud.,  XIV  (1894),  pp.  30  ft 


444  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

group  of  vases  which  is  commonly  known  by  the  term  "  Proto- 
Corinthian."1 

This  ware  in  its  earliest  form  is  as  old  as  the  later  development 
of  Mycenaean  pottery.2     Its  decoration  in  this  early  stage  is  linear 
Proto-      in  character,  of  the  type  shown  in  Figure  361.     Not 
Corinthian   infrequently  we  find  added  a  band  with  a  hare  hunt 
represented  on  it,3  an  example  of  which  appears  also  in  some  later 
vases  of  this  class  (Fig.  363).     On  the  shoulder  of  the  vases  is 
often   a  radiating    tongue-pattern    (German 
Stab  ornament}.     The    vases   are  commonly 
small  lecythi  or  alabastra,  finely  made,  and 
they  were  evidently  greatly  in  vogue  as  toilet 
jars.     The  clay  is  usually  pale  yellow,  some- 
times a  little  pinkish,  rarely  even  of  a  grayish 
tone,  and  the  decorations  are  in  brown  or 
FIG.    361.  —  Lecythus.     red,  animal  figures  appearing  as  simple  sil- 
Athens.       (Argive     nouettes  wjthout  incision.     As  the  style  de- 

Heraeum,  II,  p.  127, 

Fig.  55.    h.  0.06  m.)     velops,  it  betrays  Geometric  influence,  and 

1  Professor   Charles  Waldstein   in   the   Argive   Heraeum  and  Dr.    J.  C. 
Hoppin  have  substituted  the  name  Argive  for  Proto- Corinthian,  but  with 
doubtful  gain.     The  excavations  at  Corinth  have  yielded  a  great  many  of 
these  vases,  many  have  been  found  in  Syracuse,  a  Corinthian  colony,  and 
Corinth  itself  may  easily  have  been  a  more  important  centre  of  their  manu- 
facture than  the  Argolid.     It  may  be  admitted  that  the  objections  raised  by 
some  archaeologists  to  the  use  of  Proto-Corinthian  as  a  designation  for  the 
class  of  vases  which  it  is  intended  to  describe  are  reasonable  enough,  since  it 
is  by  no  means  certain  that  all  the  vases  included  in  the  group  should  really 
be  classed  together,  and  the  later  and  finer  specimens  are  certainly  not  earlier 
than  any  but  the  later  phases  of  the  Corinthian  style.     Nevertheless,  since 
the  name  has  now  come  to  be  pretty  generally  applied  to  a  recognized  class, 
it  seems  better  not  to  discard  it,  even  though  its  actual  meaning  may  be 
misleading,  until  a  substitute  which  has  scientific  certainty  is  suggested. 

2  Cp.  Dummler.  Jahrb.  d.  Jnst.,  II  (1887),  p.    19;    Hoppin,  A.J.A.   (2d 
ser.),  IV  (1900),  p.  445. 

3  This  scheme  of  decoration  found  on  Proto-Corinthian  and   Corinthian 
pottery  is  apparently  directly  traceable  to  oriental  influence.     Cp.  Jour.  Hell. 
Stud.,  XI  (1890),  p.  177. 


VASES 


445 


FIG.  362.  —  Pyxis.     Syracuse.     (Annali,  1877, 
Tav.  d'  agg.  C,  D,  Fig.  9.    Diam.  0.13  m.) 


we  find   such   decoration 

as  is  shown  in  Figure  362. 

The  shapes  of  the  vases 

become    somewhat    more 

varied,    and    besides    the 

pyxis     a    small    scyphus, 

often  very  delicately  made, 

is  frequent  (Fig.  364);    a 

characteristic  shape,  too,  is 

a  small  jug  with  long  neck 

(cp.  Baumeister,  Denkmater,  Fig.  2090).*    Here,  too,  are  sometimes 

classed,  though  perhaps  incorrectly,  a  series  of  vases,  both  small  /<?- 

cythi  and  oenochoae, 
which  are  deco- 
rated with  an  incised 
fish-scale  pattern 
(imbrication)  strong- 
ly suggestiveof  metal 
technique  (cp.  Fig. 
364,  and  the  Album 
of  the  Louvre  Cata- 
logue £347).  These 
are  especially  inter- 
esting as  showing 
the  extension  by  in- 
cision of  a  pattern 
known  to  the  My- 
cenaean period. 

The  third  stage  of 
the  Proto-Corinthi- 
an  ware  is  well  illus- 


1*10.363.  —  Lecythus.     Boston.     (A.J.A.  IV,  1900, 
PL  IV.    h.  0.067  m.) 


trated  in  Figure  363. 


1  Many  specimens  of  this  geometric  period  of  Proto-Corinthian  ware  have 
been  found  at  the  Argive  Heraeum,  at  Corinth,  and  notably,  near  Syracuse ; 
for  the  latter,  cp.  Notizie  degli  scavi,  1895,  PP-  IO9  & 


446  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

It  is  represented  chiefly  by  a  goodly  number  of  small  lecythi, 
which  frequently  show  exceedingly  careful  and  beautiful  decora- 
tion. They  are  veritable  masterpieces  of  Greek  miniature  paint- 
ing. The  handle  often  has  a  most  elaborately  designed  guilloche 
on  it,  and  even  the  top  of  the  broad  lip  is  usually  carefully  orna- 
mented ;  the  shoulder  of  the  vase,  in  characteristic  examples,  bears 
an  intricate  development  of  a  lotus  and  palmette  design,  the  foot 
shows  "  rays,"  above  which  are  often  one  and  sometimes  two  narrow 
friezes  representing  animals,  and  a  broad  band  about  the  centre 
of  the  vase  carries  the  chief  design.  This  is  frequently  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  mythological  scene,  as  in  Figure  363  (Bellerophon 
and  the  Chimaera).  Various  shades  of  red  and  brown  are  used  in 
many  examples,  and  the  figures  are  often  incised  with  wonderful 
delicacy ;  the  designs,  while  archaic,  frequently  show  a  freedom 
and  life  which  make  them  rank  high  as  examples  of  decorative  art.1 
Between  the  linear  and  geometric  groups  and  this  third  group 
of  Proto-Corinthian  ware  there  is  a  great  gap,  and  yet  enough  ele- 

1  Perhaps  the  three  most  notable  specimens  of  this  very  interesting  type 
of  ware  are  the  so-called  "  Macmillan  lecythus"  in  the  British  Museum 
(Jour.  Hell.  Stud.,  XI,  1890,  Pis.  I  and  II),  a  lecythus  in  Berlin  (Jahrb.  d. 
Inst.  XXI,  1906,  PI.  2),  and  the  oenochoe  of  the  Chigi  collection  in  Rome, 
(Antike  Denkmaler,  II,  Pis.  44  and  45).  The  two  former  vases  (height  of 
each  about  0.07  m.)  are  noteworthy  not  only  for  the  extraordinary  delicacy 
of  their  ornamentation,  but  in  each  example  for  the  shape  of  the  top,  which  is 
modelled  in  the  form  of  a  lion's  head  ;  the  Chigi  oenochoe  commands  attention 
by  reason  of  its  form  and  unusual  size  (height  0.262  m.)  and  for  its  extended 
and  brilliant  decoration.  The  Judgment  of  Paris  was  represented  on  the 
Chigi  vase,  and  the  scene  bears  an  inscription  unfortunately  however  too 
much  mutilated  to  give  certain  information  as  to  the  place  in  which  the  vase 
was  made.  The  very  few  inscriptions  which  exist  on  Proto-Corinthian  vases 
give  little  help  in  determining  where  the  style  originated.  That  in  the 
Chalcidian  alphabet  incised  on  the  so-called  lecythus  of  Tataie  from  Cumae 
(Jnscrip.  Graec.  Antiqutss.,  524)  maybe  later  than  the  vase,  and  the  inscription 
painted  on  the  lecythus  in  Boston,  published  by  K.  B.  Tarbell  (  Re v.  Archcol.,  1902, 
pp.  41-46),  is  not  decisive,  though  it  may  be  Chalcidian.  In  any  case  this  vase 
differs  both  in  shape  and  in  the  color  of  the  clay  from  the  usual  Proto-Corinthian 
fabric.  See  also  Arch.  Zeit.,  1883,  PI.  X,  and  Melanges  Perrot,  p.  269,  PI.  IV. 


VASES 


447 


ments,  such  as  the  similar  size  and  form  of  many  of  the  vases  and 
the  narrow  friezes  of  animals,  appear  to  be  common  to  both  the 
earlier  and  later  stages  to  warrant  the  usual  classification.  We 
must,  however,  suppose  that  a  considerable  period  of  time  elapsed 
in  the  process  of  so  marked  a  development,  and  that  the  third 
group  felt  the  full  growth  of  oriental  influence,  and  very  likely 
also  the  beginning  of  its  decline  before  the  growing  independence 
of  Greek  work.  Certainly  it  hardly  seems  possible  to  date  the  finer 
Proto-Corinthian  vases  earlier  than  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh 
or  even  than  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  so  we  cannot  possibly 
place  the  third  group  before  the  coarser,  orientalized  ware  of 
Corinth.  Thus,  in  turning  to  the  earlier  phases  of  the  Corinthian 
style,  we  must  in  all  likelihood  go  back  a  good  many  years,  since 
there  is  evidence  that  it  was  in  use  as  early  as  about  700  B.C.,1  and 
perhaps  it  may  be  placed  even  somewhat  before  this. 

The  clay  of  the  older  Corinthian  vases  is  a  pale  yellow,  which 
sometimes  shows  a  greenish  tinge.     Often  the  surface  appears  to 

have  been  prepared  for  the  decoration  by  the  applica- 

r        i-        L-   i      v   t    i  j-c  i        Corinthian 

tion  of  a  slip  which  slightly  modifies  the  natural  color 

of  the  clay.  The  vases  in  this  early  period  are  small,  and  the 
most  characteristic  forms  are  the  ball-shaped  aryballus  (Fig.  341, 
No.  17),  the pyxisj  (No.  15),  which  varies  somewhat  in  type,  the 
alabastrum,  the  scyphus  (Fig.  365),  and  a  squat  form  of  the  oenochoe 
(Fig.  365).3  The  field  on  the  vases  is  thickly  strewn  with  rather 
heavily  made  rosettes  and  groups  of  dots,  and  it  often  seems  so 
overloaded  with  such  ornament  that  a  carpet-pattern  is  suggested. 
In  early  specimens  conventionalized  vegetable  ornament  is  not  un- 

1  The  tombs,  though  not  the  very  earliest  ones,  near  Syracuse,  which  was 
founded  734  B.C.,  have  yielded  specimens  of  Corinthian  vases.    On  the  general 
subject  of  Corinthian  vases,  see  Wilisch,  Die  altkorinthische  Thonindustrie. 

2  The  famous  Dodwell  vase,  now  in  Munich  (Baumeister,  Denkm'dler,  PI. 
LXXXVIII),  is  a  classic  example  of  \.\\e  pyxis  with  curved  sides. 

3  The  scyphus  here  figured  (365)  has  peculiar  interest  in  that  its  decoration 
is  almost  precisely  like  that  of  a  larger  scyphus  found  in  Samos  (Boehlau,  Aus 
ion.  u.  ital.  Nekropolen,  PI.  IV,  I,  la).     Such  practical  identity  of  design  is 
very  uncommon. 


448  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

common,  covering  often  the  whole  body  of  the  vase,  but  the  scheme 
of  decoration  which_  is  most  strikingly_characteristic  of  the  older 
Corinthian  style  is  the  frieze  of  animals  (Fig.  365).  The  types  of 
these  are  repeated  with  monotonous  iteration.  The  deer,  so  com- 
mon in  the  "  Rhodian  "  vases,  is  less  frequent,  but  the  antelope, 
boar,  ram,  and  lion  occur  constantly,  and  the  panther,  with  head 
turned  in  full  face,  appears  everywhere.  Of  birds,  there  are 
represented  fowls,  owls,  and  eagles,  and  among  mythical  animals, 
griffins,  sphinxes,  sirens,  fish-tailed  demons,  and  the  like.1  The 
animals  are  treated  conventionally  as  elements  in  a  scheme  of  deco- 


FlG.  364.  —  Lecythus  (h.  0.092  m.),  scyphus  (  h.  0.089  m-).  alabastrum 
(h.  0.07  m.).    Boston.     (Photograph.) 

ration.  They  generally  follow  one  another  as  in  a  procession,  and 
are  very  rarely  represented  as  disporting  themselves  or  fighting. 
Now  and  then  two  are  placed  facing  each  other,  sometimes  in 
heraldic  opposition,  but  they  show  little  of  the  reflection  of  real 
life  which  we  associate  with  Greek  art,  and  the  formality  of  the 
East  is  marked.  The  color-scheme  exhibited  on  these  early  vases 
is  that  of  blackish  brown  figures,  parts  of  which  are  commonly  ren- 
dered conspicuous  by  the  use  of  a  dark  red  of  crimson  tone.  White 
is  also  found  occasionally,  though  at  this  stage  it  is  used  very  spar- 
ingly. The  foot  of  the  vase  generally  shows  "  rays."  There  is, 
1  Cp.  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Histoire,  PI.  4. 


VASES 


449 


FIG.  365.  —  Scyphus  (h.  0.09  m.),  oenochoe  (h.  0.14201.).    Boston.    (Photograph.) 


however,  no  more  noteworthy  feature 


rnrinthian  vases  than 


the  incised  line,  since  here  we  find  for  the  first  time  the  extensive  use 
of  this  important  addition  to  the  vase-painter's  technique.  In- 
scriptions, too,  in  the  well-marked  alphabet  of  Corinth,  make  their 
appearance  (see  the  Dodwell  vase,  p.  447,  note  2),  and  as  the  style 
advances  we  even  find  the  signatures  of  artists  coming  in.1  About 
the  end  of  the  seventh  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  is 
probably  the  time  when  a  change  in  Corinthian  pottery  becomes 
marked,  though  no  doubt  the  older  type  of  vase  might  still  con- 
tinue to  be  manufactured.  The  hydria,  a  taller  oenochoe,  the 
amphora,  the  dinus,  a  cylix  without  the  stem,  become  usual,  and, 
above  all,  the  celebe  (Fig.  366)  appears.  This  latter  form  is  charac- 
teristic of  a  considerable  series  of  the  later  Corinthian  vases  found  at 
Caere  in  Italy,  many  of  which  are  noteworthy  for  their  mythological 
illustrations.2  The  clay  in  these  later  vases  often  has  a  reddish 

1  Cp.  Klein,  Die  griech.  Vasen  mil  Meistersignaturen,  pp.  28  f.    Timonidas 
and  Chares  are  the  names  which  occur.     Cp.  Ath.  Mitt.,  1905,  pp.  199  ff. 

2  This  form  at  Corinth  itself  is  rare  ;    see,  however,  Richardson,  A.J*A. 
(2d  ser.),  Vol.  II  (1898),  pp.  195  ff. 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  29 


45° 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


tinge  which  is  foreign  to  the  earlier  ones.  White  applied  directly 
to  the  clay  ground  is  freely  used  on  extended  surfaces,1  and  is 
regularly  employed  to  represent  the  flesh  of  women.  In  general, 
the  characteristics  of  the  later  period  are  the  omission  of  the  bands 
of  animals  or  their  relegation  to  a  subordinate  position,  and  the 
introduction  of  human  figures  and  scenes  of  human  interest  as  the 
chief  element  in  the  scheme  of  decoration.  Eastern  formality 
gives  way  before  Greek  freedom.  At  first  the  change  seems  rather 
tentative,  and  we  have  only  single  human  figures  ;  then  rows  of  war- 

riors  and  horsemen, 

the  latter  usually 
small  men  on  tall 
horses ;  an  eagle  is 
often  represented 
following  the  rid- 
ers. Occasionally 
gay  dancing  scenes 
are  introduced 
(Baumeister,  Denk- 
mij/er,  Fig.  2099), 
and  finally  really 
elaborate  composi- 
tions, illustrating  the 
current  legends  of 


FIG.  366.  —  Celebe.    Vatican,  (h.  44111.)   (Photograph.) 


the  people.  This  latest  development  of  Corinthian  pottery  asso- 
ciates it  closely  with  the  art  of  the  chest  of  Cypselus,  and  suggests 
also  the  highly  probable  theory  that  the  vase-painters  felt-the  influ- 
ence not  only  of  the  popular  mythology,  but  also  that  of  the  larger 
art  of  a  school  of  painting.  That  the  Attic  vase-painters  of  the 
fifth  century  B.C.  felt  such  an  influence  is  hardly  open  to  question, 
and  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  Greek  tradition  in  regard  to  the  rise 
of  painting  assigned  an  important  role  to  Sicyon  and  Corinth/ 
and  that  the  legendary  artists,  Eucheir  and  Eugrammus,  were  said 

1  Cp.  Ath.Mitt.,  IV  (1879),  PI.  XVIII. 

2  Cp.  Overbeck,  Schriftqucllen,  Nos.  381,  382. 


VASES  451 

to  have  been  Corinthians.  Among  these  Corinthian  celebae  from 
Italy,  there  is  perhaps  none  more  interesting  than  the  one  in  the 
Louvre  upon  which  is  represented  the  banquet  of  Heracles  at  the 
house  of  Eurytius  (Fig.  367).  In  its  various  schemes  of  decoration 
the  vase  seems  a  kind  of  summing  up  of  Corinthian  motives^  At 
the  foot  appear  the  characteristic  "  rays,"  then  next  above  comes  a 
narrow  frieze  representing  galloping  horsemen ;  above  that  follows 


FIG.  367.  —  Heracles  and  Eurytius.     Louvre,     (h.  of  vase,  046  m.) 

VI,  PI.  33-) 


(Monumenti, 


the  broad  band  upon  which  on  one  side  of  the  vase  is  painted  the 
banquet  scene  ;  on  the  shoulder  runs  a  conventional  palmette-lotus 
pattern,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  lip  is  a  row  of  the  stiff  Corinthian 
animals,  among  which  the  hare  hunt  is  introduced.  The  various 
zones  are  divided  from  one  another  by  bands  of  red  and  black,  and 
red  of  a  crimson  tone  is  freely  used  on  the  figures.  The  drawing 
in  outline  of  the  woman's  face  and  of  the  dog  under  the  couch  of 
Heracles,  with  the  unpainted  surface  of  the  vase  as  a  background, 
1  Cp.  Pettier,  Catalogue,  p.  481  ff. 


45»  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

is  not  in  keeping  with  the  usual  Corinthian  technique,  and  may  very 
likely  be  attributed  to  Ionic  influence.  The  names  of  the  persons 
present  at  the  banquet  are  all  given  in  the  Corinthian  alphabet  — 
To£os,  KAvYios,  <\i8aipov,  Ev/airrios,  FM^ITOS,  FtoAa  (lole),  Hepa/cXes. 
Behind  Heracles  a  carver  is  engaged  in  cutting  up  the  meat.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  vase,  on  this  same  broad  band,  is  a  scene  of 
combat  which,  with  its  kneeling  archers,  suggests  the  somewhat 
later  Aeginetan  pediments,  and  under  one  handle  is  represented  the 
suicide  of  Ajax  witnessed  by  Diomed  and  Odysseus.  Such  a  com- 
plicated composition  certainly  betokens  a  great  advance  from  the 
period  of  the  conventional  rows  of  animals.  But  after  this  stage 
was  reached,  the  vase-painting  of  Corinth  seems  to  disappear  before 
the  growing  importance  of  Attic  ceramic  art,  and,  though  it  un- 
questionably affected  the  latter,  as  will  be  noticed  when  we  come 
to  consider  the  complicated  influences  which  appear  in  the  Athe- 
nian pottery  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  its  day  was  over,  and,  like 
Corinth  itself,  it  becomes  of  relatively  small  importance. 

One  other  manifestation  of  the  art  of  the  Corinthian  potters 
which  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  vases,  calls  for  mention.  This  is  a 
series  of  small  clay  plaques,  pinaces  (TriVa/ces),  found  at 
Penteskouphia,  to  the  southwest  of  the  Acrocorinthus.1 
They  are  dedicatory  offerings  to  Poseidon  and  Amphitrite  for  the 
most  part,  with  figures  of  these  deities  represented  upon  them. 
There  are,  however,  also  some  interesting  scenes  picturing  handi- 
craft —  the  potter's  wheel,  kilns  for  firing  vases,  miners  at  work,  one 
or  two  representations  of  ships,  etc.  (cp.  Figs.  343-349).  The 
pinaces  differ  a  good  deal  in  size,  varying  from  a  few  centimetres 
in  either  dimension  to  a  width  of  0.20  m.  The  clay  is  of  the  light 
yellow  color,  slightly  greenish  in  tinge,  which  is  so  characteristic  of 
Corinthian  pottery.  The  figures  are  done  in  a  brownish  varnish, 
sometimes  simply  as  silhouettes,  and  again  with  the  addition  of  red 

1  See  for  the  publication  of  this  series,  Antike  Denkmaler,  I,  Pis.  7  and 
8 ;  II,  Pis.  23,  24,  29,  30,  39,  40 ;  Gazette  Archeol.,  1880,  pp.  101-107;  Monu- 
ments Grecs,  Nos.  11-13  (1882-1884).  Cp.  also  Pernice  \njahrb,  d.  Inst* 
XII  (1897)  ;  see  also,  Hermes,  XXXVI  (1901),  pp.  387-393. 


VASES  453 

and  white,  and  with  incised  lines.  The  technique  is  thus  that  of 
the  vases.  Inscriptions,  chiefly  dedicatory,  which  have  made  an 
extensive  addition  to  our  specimens  of  the  Corinthian  alphabet, 
appear  very  generally  on  the  plaques. 

The  difficult  problem  of  the  mutual  relation   between   Corin- 
thian and  Proto-Corinthian  pottery  cannot  be  discussed  at  length 
here.     Nor  is  it  likely  that,  with  our  present  knowl-   _ 
edge,  a  solution  which  will  meet  with  general  accep-  Corinthian 

tance  can  be  reached.     Strictly  speaking,  only  the  two  and 

„,     .     .  .  Corinthian 

earlier  stages  of  Proto-Conntman  ware  are  really proto- 

Corinthian,  and  the  third  and  finest  stage  seems  to  betray  some 
other  than  Corinthian  qualities.  Emphasize  the  resemblance 
between  this  and  the  Corinthian  vases  as  we  may,  there  is  still 
not  only  a  delicacy,  but  a  freedom  and  life  about  these  ex- 
quisite little  specimens  of  miniature  painting  which  is  not  found 
in  the  work  of  the  latter  style.  The  Proto-Corinthian  back- 
ground ornaments  (Fullornamente}  are  different,  too,  and  of 
lighter  design,  suggesting  "  Rhodian  "  rather  than  Corinthian  work, 
and  the  splendid  Chigi  vase,  already  mentioned,  in  the  brilliancy 
and  variety  of  its  colors  and  in  its  technique  (especially  in  the 
outline-drawing  of  the  heads  in  the  group  of  goddesses),  strongly 
suggests  Ionic  influence,  the  influence,  that  is,  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  islands.1  Perhaps,  therefore,  in  the  finest  Proto-Corinthian 
vases  we  have  the  manifestation  of  an  oriental  influence  which  is 
not  transmitted  through  Corinth  as  a  medium.  Chalcis  in  Euboea, 
with  its  Ionic  traditions,  has  often  been  suggested  as  the  place 
which  may  have  introduced  this  style  into  Greece,2  and  the  theory 

1  This  same  outline  technique  may  be  seen  in  a  lion's  head  on  a  Proto- 
Corinthian  vase  fragment,  Argive  Heraeum,  Vol.  II,  PI.  Ixiv,  No.  3. 

'•  Cp.  H.  Stuart  Jones,  Jour.  Hell.  Stud.,  XVI  (1896),  pp.  333  f.  Mr. 
Jones  appears  to  lay  an  unduly  strong  emphasis  on  the  resemblance  between 
some  of  the  Syracusan  and  Cumaean  Proto-Corinthian  ware  and  the  so-called 
Proto-Boeotian  (early  geometric)  vases.  The  linear  character  of  the  early 
Proto-Corinthian  style,  as  Hoppin  suggests,  may  well  be  a  direct  inheritance 
from  late  Mycenaean.  A  valuable  article  on  Proto-Corinthian  pottery  is  that 
of  O.  M.  Washburn,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  XXI  (1906),  pp.  116  ff. 


454  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

may  be  correct,  but  as  yet  we  have  little  knowledge  of  the  local 
ceramic  art  which  led  up  to  the  small  class  of  sixth  century  vases 
known  as  Chalcidian.  These  do  indeed  show  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  Corinthian  style,  and  this  fact  has  a  significant 
bearing  upon  the  theories  which  are  advanced  to  explain  the  origin 
and  affinities  of  the  Proto-Corinthian  vases,  especially  those  of  the 
most  finished  class. 

Ionic 

There  is  at  present  great  difficulty  in  discussing  what  have  in 
recent  years  come  to  be  called  the  Ionic  vases,  for  as  yet  our 
knowledge  of  the  origin  and  the  interrelations  of  these  styles  is 
very  imperfect.  Much  that  has  been  written  of  them  is  still  no 
more  than  suggestive  theory.  Furthermore,  the  development  of 
vase-painting  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  adjacent  Greek  islands  is  very 
varied  in  character  and  it  is  extremely  uncertain  whether  the  term 
"  Ionic  "  is  applied  to  certain  classes  with  correctness.  Ionic,  too, 
has  been  made  to  include  more  styles  of  vases  than  it  is  possible  to 
discuss  in  the  limits  of  a  handbook,  and  it  is  necessary  to  select 
for  brief  treatment  those  which  are  best  known  and  which  may 
be  deemed  most  typical.  The  styles  here  selected  for  mention 
are  the  so-called  Rhodian,  the  so-called  Melian,  that  of  the  sar- 
cophagi of  Clazomenae,  that  of  some  of  the  vases  of  Naucratis 
and  Daphnae  (Tell  Defenneh)  in  Egypt,  the  so-called  Cyrenaic 
style,  and  that  of  the  Caeretan  hydriae. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  development  of  early  Ionic 
ceramic  art  there  are  found  more  reminiscences  of  Mycenaean  art 
than  appear  in  the  early  styles  of  Greece  proper,  and  this  fact  is 
rightly  deemed  of  high  importance,  since  the  direct  relation  of 
Mycenaean  art  with  that  of  Greece  is  as  yet  insufficiently 
established.  As  Ionic  art  develops,  it  exhibits  a  freedom  and  variety 
which  would  be  the  natural  result  of  the  vigorous  trade  that  ex- 
isted in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  from  the  eighth  and  seventh 
centuries  B.C.  on.  There  was  undoubtedly  in  these  regions  at  this 
time  a  wide  intercourse  not  only  with  the  Greek  mainland,  but  also 


VASES  455 

with  Magna  Graecia,  with  Egypt,  with  Lydia,  and  with  the  farther 
East,  for  we  find  in  much  of  the  pottery  an  oriental  influence 
hardly  less  marked  than  in  the  vases  of  Corinth.  As  there,  how- 
ever, it  is  the  Greek  spirit  which  in  the  end  prevails.  The 
important  cities  more  or  less  closely  linked  together  politically 
—  Miletus,  Priene,  Ephesus,  Colophon,  Lebedus,  Teos,  Phocaea, 
and  Clazomenae  —  may  almost  certainly  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
centres  of  intellectual  and  artistic  life  in  Ionia,  even  when  the 
manifestations  of  such  activity  are  found  in  communities  of  Doric 
origin  like  those  of  Rhodes. 

Speaking  generally,  Ionic  traits  of  the  early  periods  are  the 
use  of  a  light-colored  slip  on  the  clay,  which  serves  as  a  founda- 
tion for  the  decoration  in  black  glaze,  the  comparatively  rare 
occurrence  of  incised  lines,  the  use,  commonly  for  only  a  part  of 
the  figure,  of  contour  lines  drawn  in  outline  on  the  slip,1  and  the 
"reserving"  of  narrow  lines  or  patches,  to  indicate  details  in 
the  silhouette,  which  are  sometimes  colored  and  sometimes  show 
merely  the  slip  of  the  ground.  Motives  taken  from  plant  life 
are  characteristic  and  point  very  likely  to  a  Mycenaean  survival, 
and  the  frieze  of  animals,  suggesting  oriental  influence,  is  found, 
though  the  heraldic  opposition  of  the  Corinthian  style  is  rare. 
As  the  art  advances,  in  the  latest  classes  the  light-colored  slip  is 
not  used,  and  human  figures  appear,  incision  is  common,  and  the 
technique  of  the  vases  in  general  resembles  that  of  Attic  black- 
figured  work.  Details  of  costume  point  to  oriental  influence,  and 
there  is  great  vivacity  of  movement  and  often  much  humor. 
The  figures  are  heavier  than  in  early  Attic  work,  less  dry,  but 
also  less  elegant.  Men  and  women  are  in  some  cases  (e.g.  on 
"Melian"  vases)  distinguished  by  difference  in  the  color  of  the 
flesh,  but  not  by  the  shape  of  the  eye,  as  in  Attica,  and  there  is 
great  variety  of  physiognomy.  Inscriptions  are  rare.  The  seventh 
and  sixth  centuries  B.C.  cover  the  period  of  most  importance  in 

1  Cp.  B.C.H.,  1895,  PI-  2-  This  practice  of  outline  drawing  is  occasionally 
found  on  early  ware  elsewhere  than  in  Ionic  regions  (e.g.  in  Boeotia),  but  it 
appears  to  be  a  distinctly  Ionic  practice.  Cp.  pp.  452,  453. 


45  6 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


the  development  of  Ionic  vase-painting  and,  as  this  corresponds 
with  the  time  of  the  chief  activity  of  the  earlier  Ionic  sculptors 
and  painters,  we  may  no  doubt  assume  the  existence  of  a  con- 
siderable influence  on  the 
minor  by  the  major  art. 
The  extant  remains  of 
works  in  sculpture  of  the 
early  Ionic  school,  such  as 
the  marbles  from  the  ear- 
lier temple  at  Ephesus 
and  the  "Harpy  Tomb," 
show  how  skilful  the 
sculptors  were,  and  tradi- 
tion has  furnished  us  the 
names  of  artists  like  Bathy- 
cles  of  Magnesia,  who 
made  the  throne  at  Amy- 
clae,  and  Boularchus  whose 
picture  of  the  defeat  of  the 
Magnetes  was  bought  by 
the  Lydian  king  Candaules 
for  its  weight  in  gold. 

The  features  of  the  ear- 
lier Ionic  ceramic  art  are 
nowhere  more  clearly  shown  than  in  the  "  Rhodian"  vases,  whether 

we  consider  these  of  necessarily  local  manufacture  or 
"Rhodian" 

accept  the  theory  now  frequently  put  forward  that  they 

are  of  Milesian  origin.  The  shapes  of  the  vases  vary  considerably, 
but  the  oenochoe  (Fig.  368)  and  pinax  (Fig.  369)  are  markedly 
characteristic.  Much  of  the  minor  detail  seems  inherited  from  the 
Mycenaean  age,  though  the  general  scheme  of  decoration  also  be- 
trays a  strong  oriental  influence,  fostered  very  possibly  by  the  imita- 
tion of  Eastern  textile  fabrics  of  various  kinds.  Eastern  in  origin, 
too,  are  many  of  the  animals  represented,  often  hybrid  in  character, 
like  the  sphinx,  griffin,  chimaera,  etc.  The  light-colored  clay  is 


FlG.  368.  —  Oenochoe.    Boston,    h.  0.35. 
(Photograph.) 


VASES 


457 


covered  with  a  yellowish  white  slip,  and  on  this  as  a  background 
the  figures  are  painted.  A  dark  brown  is  much  used  and  deep 
red  and  white  are  also  found.  These  colors  are  apparently  fixed 
only  by  a  second  firing,  for  in  many  instances  they  have  flaked  off. 
The  scheme  of  decoration  shown  in  Figure  368  is  most  characteris- 
tic. Figures  of  animals  following  one  another  are  arranged  in 
encircling  bands,  the  heads  being  usually  drawn  only  in  outline. 
The  neck  of  the  vase  often  bears  a  geometric  pattern  or  a  braided 
band,  and  around  the  foot  are  commonly  lotus  flowers  and  buds. 
In  the  field  of  the  bands  the  ground-ornaments  consist  of  rosettes, 
stars,  circles,  the  swastika,  etc. ;  palmettes  between  spirals  are  also 
common,  and  we  sometimes  find  the 
conventional  eye,  very  characteristic 
of  later  Ionic  pottery.1 

The  character  of  the  pinaces  is 
much  the  same,  only  the  form  makes 
a  leading  central  design  the  promi- 
nent feature.  The  tendency  to  deco- 
rate in  bands  is,  however,  so  strong 
that  beneath  the  main  design  a  seg- 
ment of  the  circle  of  the  pinax  is 
often  found,  and  this  is  filled  with 
some  conventional  pattern  or  even 
with  a  subordinate  drawing  of  a  figure,  as  in  the  pinax  published 
in  Rayet  and  Collignon's  Histoire  (Fig.  27),  where  this  subordinate 
design  represents  a  swordfish. 

The  decoration  is,  as  a  whole,  very  effective,  superior  in  its 
general  simplicity  and  freedom  from  overcrowding  to  that  of  the 
earlier  Corinthian  vases  which  in  oriental  tendencies  it  recalls. 
Sometimes,  however,  this  greater  simplicity  is  not  so  evident,  as 
in  the  decoration  of  the  well-known  and  often  published  Euphorbus 
pinax  of  the  British  Museum  (Salzmann,  La  Necropole  de  Camirus, 
PI.  LIII)  which  reproduces  an  incident  from  Epic  narrative 
mentioned  in  the  Iliad  (XVII,  82  ff.)  —  the  combat  of  Hector 

1  Cp.  Boehlau,  "  Die  ionischen  Augenschalen,"  Ath.  Mitt,,  Vol.  25  (190x3)  . 


FIG.  369.  —  Plate  or  pinax.  Boston. 
Diam.  0.30501.     (Photograph.) 


458 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Fikellura 


and  Menelaus  over  the  body  of  Euphorbus.  Here  brighter 
colors  are  profusely  used  and  the  field  is  crowded  with  various 
characteristic  ornaments.  This  pinax  has  the  further  peculi- 
arity of  bearing  inscriptions  in  the  Argive  alphabet  which  desig- 
nate the  figures  represented,  and  from  various  points  of  view 
it  seems  a  decidedly  exceptional  specimen  of  the  "  Rhodian " 
ware. 

Another  ware  has  taken  its  current  name,  Fikellura,  from  one 
of  the  burial  places  at  Camirus,  in  Rhodes.  In  origin  it  is  thought 
not  improbably  to  be  Samian.1  It  may  at  any  rate  be 
counted  among  the  wares  which  appear  to  have  kept 
Mycenaean  traditions  unmodified  by  having  passed  through  a  geo- 
metric era,  and  so  is  rightly  held  to 
be  of  importance  in  showing  the 
preservation  of  earlier  motives  in 
decoration.  Figure  370,  a  vase  in 
the  British  Museum,  illustrates  one 
characteristic  example  of  this  class, 
the  technique  of  which  is  essentially 
the  same  as  that  of  the  ordinary 
so-called  Rhodian  pottery.  Some- 
times, however,  the  ware  does  not 
have  the  horizontal  division  of  the 
design  here  shown,  but  spirals, 
palmettes,  etc.,  are  introduced  up- 
on the  undivided  surface  of  the 
vase,  and  in  such  examples  the 
vase  is  especially  reminiscent  of 
Mycenae.  A  network  pattern  is 
also  not  uncommon,  and  this  often  shows  a  considerable  variety  in 
the  design  of  the  mesh. 

Another  class  of  vases  which  in  technique  and  style  exhibits 
many  of  the  Ionian  characteristics  is  that  which  is  generally  known 
as  Melian,  because  the  first  specimens  of  it  were  found  many  years 
1  Cp.  Boehlau,  A  us  ionischen  und  italischen  Nekropolen,  pp.  52  ff. 


FlG.  370.  —  Fikellura  amphora. 
British  Museum,  h.  0.285  m- 
(Boehlau,  Aus  ion.  u.  ital.  Nekro- 
polen, Fig.  25.) 


VASES 


459 


ago  in  Melos.1    Until  recently,  examples  of  these  vases  were  few  in 
number  and  of  the  form  of  amphora  shown  in  Figure  371.    In  1898, 

however,    they   were 

,  .  j,  "Melian" 

much  increased  by  ex- 
cavations on  the  island  of  Rheneia 
which  yielded  a  large  number  of 
"  Melian "  hydriae  of  the  type 
illustrated  by  Figure  372.  These, 
it  is  conjectured  with  much  prob- 
ability, were  brought  from  Delos 


FlG.  371.  —  Melian  amphora.  Athens, 
h.  0.92  m.  (Conze,  Melische  Than- 
gefasse,  PI.  I.) 


FIG. 372.—  J.H.S.,  XXII,  p.  49,  Fig.  I. 
(A  drawing  made  up  of  typical  de- 
signs, not  an  existing  vase.) 


1  Cp.  Conze,  Melische  Thongefdsse,  Leipzig,  1862.  The  classification  of 
"  Melian "  vases  as  Ionic  is  probable,  but  doubtful.  J.  H.  Hopkinson 
(Jour.  Hell.  Stud.,  XXII,  pp.  47  ff.)  thinks  that  the  vases  are  "Delian," 
though  very  likely  made  from  imported  clay.  They,  at  any  rate,  represent  an 
island  manufacture,  of  technique  closely  resembling  the  Ionic  (yellowish  slip, 
"  reserved  "  spaces,  drawing  in  outline,  very  little  incision,  and  some  of  the 
orientalizing  tendencies),  but  local  tradition  may  have  greatly  influenced 
development.  Hopkinson  recognizes  the  "  Sub-Mykenaean "  character  of 
"  Rhodian,"  Samian,  and  "  Delian "  wares  and  their  kinship  with  one 
another,  so  that  the  question  of  calling  "  Melian "  (or  "  Delian ")  Ionic 
becomes  merely  one  of  formal  classification. 


460  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

at  the  time  the  Athenians  effected  a  purification  of  the  island  in 
426-425  B.C.  and  removed  a  number  of  ancient  graves.  The 
new  series  of  "  Melian  "  vases,  now  the  chief  treasure  of  the  little 
Museum  on  the  island  of  Myconos,  affords  impressive  testimony  to 
the  importance  of  this  island  style  of  vase-painting.  This  note- 
worthy ceramic  collection,  still  unpublished,  except  for  the  article 
of  Hopkinson  referred  to  in  Note  i,  p.  459,  everywhere  shows  what 
have  been  called  Ionic  characteristics,  and  one  or  two  specimens 
combine  these  with  motives  and  technique  which  are  Corinthian, 
(cp.  Boehlau,  Aus  ion.  u.  ital.  Nekrop.,  p.  85),  thus  suggesting 
how  complicated  the  interrelation  of  styles  may  become.  In  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  that  the  "  Melian  "  system  of  decoration  shows 
geometric  tradition  in  much  of  the  distribution  of  the  design 
and  in  the  ground  ornaments,  but  that  the  actual  ornamentation 
is  largely  curvilinear  and  suggestive  of  the  traditions  of  Myce- 
naean art.  Oriental  influence  is  also  marked,  but  the  represen- 
tation of  the  hybrid  eastern  animals  is  apparently  giving  way 
to  scenes  from  Greek  mythology ;  witness  the  often  published 
"  Melian  "  amphora  at  Athens  showing  Apollo  and  Artemis  (cp. 
Rayet  and  Collignon,  Histoire,  PI.  3)  and  the  Heracles  and 
lole,  or  possibly  Deianeira,  on  a  similar  vase  (*E<£.  'Ap^.  1894, 
Pis.  12  and  13).  This  is  what  might  be  expected  during  the 
seventh  century  B.C.,  at  which  time  the  vases  may  be  approxi- 
mately dated.  Another  "Melian"  amphora  at  Athens  (Jahrb. 
d.  Inst.,  II,  1887,  PI.  12)  deserves  especial  attention,  since  it 
seems  to  approach  the  hydriae  somewhat  more  closely  than  the 
other  amphorae  do  in  style  of  decoration.  Here  a  sphinx  is 
introduced  on  the  chief  band,  and  on  the  neck  a  human  face  in 
outline,  like  that  shown  in  Figure  372.  At  the  time  when  this 
important  class  of  vases  was  manufactured,  the  potter's  art  had 
evidently  reached  in  the  islands  a  stage  of  very  considerable 
advancement.  It  seems  a  not  improbable  theory  that  on  the 
basis  of  a  geometric  style,  local  in  character,  Ionic  and  eastern 
influences  had  been  imposed,  and  that  these  influences  had 
become  paramount  in  the  work  of  the  potters.  A  somewhat 


VASES 


461 


similar  process  of  development  appears  to  have  taken  place 
in  Attica  among  other  localities,  only  there  the  Geometric  style 
was  carried  much  further  in  the  Dipylon  vases  before  the  outside 
influences  became  effective. 

In  the  sarcophagi  of  Clazo- 
menae,  we  have,  on  the  whole, 

the    most    satisfac- 
Clazome- 

nian  tory    examples     of 

sarcophagi  jonic  ceramic  paint- 
ing which  exist,  for,  apart  from 
the  high  excellence  of  many  of 
the  specimens  themselves,  their 
discovery  on  the  site  of  an 
important  Ionian  community 
makes  the  evidence  which  they 
afford  peculiarly  trustworthy. 
Between  twenty  and  thirty  speci- 
mens are  to  be  found  in  differ- 
ent museums,  though  many  are 
in  a  very  fragmentary  condi- 
tion. In  general  form  there  are 
two  types,  in  one  of  which  the 
shape  is  on  the  lines  of  a  paral- 
lelogram, in  the  other  the  foot 
of  the  coffin  is  somewhat  nar- 
rower than  the  head,  and  the 
sides  converge  from  the  top  to 
the  bottom  (Fig.  373).  The 
first  shape  of  sarcophagus  ap- 
pears to  have  had  a  cover  in 
the  form  of  a  gable  roof,  as  is 


FIG.  373.  —  Sarcophagus.    Berlin. 
Length  2.08  m.     (Ant.  Denk.  II,  PI.  26.) 


best  shown  in  the  splendid  example 1  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
the  cover  of  which  is  elaborately  decorated  in  every  part.     The  sec- 

1  Joubin,  De  Sarcophagi*  Clazomeniis,  No.  25  ;    Terracotta  Sarcophagi  in 
the  Brit.  Mus.,  Pis.  1-7;  Monuments  Piot,  IV,  Pis.  4-7. 


462  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

ond  shape  was  apparently  covered  merely  with  a  flat  slab  of  stone. 
Since  the  chief  decoration  of  most  of  the  sarcophagi  is  found  on 
the  top  rim  of  the  receptacle,  and  this  must  have  been  concealed 
when  the  coffin  was  closed,  it  should  no  doubt  be  regarded  as  an 
elaborate  frame  for  the  exposed  body  at  the  time  of  the  funeral. 
In  some  examples  there  are  decorations  on  the  sides  of  the  re- 
ceptacle and  even  on  the  interior. 

The  general  character  of  the  decorations  is  in  harmony  with 
such  meagre  traditions  as  we  have  about  early  Ionic  painting.1 
The  subjects  are  prevailingly  battle  scenes  with  some  scenes  of  the 
chase ;  figures  of  animals  appear  frequently,  often  painted  with 
great  delicacy  and  spirit,  and  occasionally  the  scenes  betray  the 
influence  of  Epic  tradition,  as  in  the  episode,  from  the  Iliad,  of 
Diomed  and  Ulysses  with  Dolon.2  A  yellowish  white  slip  is  used 
to  prepare  the  surface  for  the  painting,  and  on  this  there  appears 
the  characteristic  Ionic  technique  with  "  reserved "  spaces  and 
lines  to  indicate  the  drawing  within  the  contour  of  the  figure ;  for 
this  purpose,  however,  white  or  even  deep  red  paint  laid  on  over 
the  black  of  the  silhouette  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  case  of 
what  are  thought  to  be  later  examples.  Rarely  we  find  the  tech- 
nique used  on  the  fine  specimen  shown  in  Figure  374,  where  the 
lion  and  the  boar,  done  in  white  with  inner  drawing  in  black  lines, 
stand  out  from  a  background  filled  in  with  black  glaze.  This  last 
process  is  analogous  to  the  later  technique  of  the  red-figured  vases, 
and  thus  probably  points  to  the  final  development  in  the  series  of 
sarcophagi.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  the  earlier  practice 
of  reserving  spaces  and  lines  persists  on  portions  of  even  the  later 
specimens,  as  is  shown  on  the  lower  parts  of  Figure  373.  In 
the  development  of  the  decoration  it  is  not  always  easy  to  be  sure 
of  chronological  sequence,  but  speaking  generally  it  may  be  as- 
sumed that  those  sarcophagi  which  show  the  most  elaborate 
designs,  involving  complicated  groups  of  human  figures,  are  later 
than  those  which  show  the  simpler  and  more  primitive  schemes  of 

1  Cp.  Overbeck,  Schriftquellen,  Nos.  375,  377,  381,  611,  612. 

2  Antike  Denkmaler,  I,  PI.  44. 


VASES 


463 


decoration.  The  use  of  bright  color,  too,  and  such  technique  as 
Figure  374  shows,  indicate  the  later  period.  The  sixth  century 
B.C.  may  with  strong  probability  be  assigned  as  the  time  when 
most  of  the  sarcophagi  were  made,  though  a  few  specimens  are 
somewhat  earlier  in  date. 


Africa 


FlG.  374. —  From  a  sarcophagus  in  Berlin.     (Ant.  Denk.  II,  PI.  25.) 

In  Africa  we  know  that  there  were  at  least  three  places  where  the 
influence  of  the  Ionian  potters  was  felt  —  at  Naucratis  and  Daph- 
nae  (Tell  Defenneh)  in  the  Nile  Delta,  and  at  Cyrene. 
There  are  still  many  unsolved  questions  touching  the 
mutual  relations  of  the  art  of  these  places,  and  the  line  between 
objects  that  are  of  local  manufacture  and  those  which  were  pretty 
certainly  imported  is  in  many  cases  not  easy  to  draw.  At  Naucratis, 
which  very  likely  had  a  Greek  colony  in  it  as  early  as  the  middle  or 
toward  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  there  are  two  classes 
of  pottery  which  claim  special  attention.  The  first l  shows  at  a 

1  For  illustrations  see  Walter's  History,  I,  PI.  XXIV,  Fig.  2,  and  "  Memoirs 
of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,"  Naukratis,  II,  Pis.  V  fi. 


464 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


glance  its  close  relation  to  the  "  Rhodian  "  ware,  which,  as  has 
been  said,  is  very  likely  of  Milesian  origin,  —  a  theory  which  gains 
much  strength  from  the  fact  that  Milesian  influence  was  certainly 
strong  in  Naucratis  somewhat  later  than  the  time  of  these  vases. 
This  "  Rhodian-Naucratite "  ware  shows  some  changes  as  it  de- 
velops, and  in  its  more  advanced  stages  incised  lines  frequently 
occur.  Some  of  the  fragments  indicate  that  mythological  subjects 
were  treated,  and  on  the  whole  the  pottery  seems  to  reveal  on  the 
part  of  the  vase-painter  more  originality  and  skill  than  the  "  Rho- 
dian "  work  does.  Without  colored  plates  it  is  impossible  to  con- 
vey the  general  effect  of  the 
painting,  which  in  color- 
scheme  is  bright  and  rich. 
Thus  the  vases  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  somewhat  later 
development  of  Ionic  work 
than  the  ordinary  "  Rho- 
dian "  ware.  The  second 
class  of  Naucratite  pottery, 
represented  by  Figure  375, 
is  distinguished  by  the  use 
of  a  creamy  white  glaze  as  a 
background  for  the  design, 
in  which  dark  red,  various  shades  of  brown,  and  white  are  employed. 
Incised  lines  are  not  found  in  the  better  specimens,  and  the  drawing 
of  contours  is  in  simple  outline.  The  vases  which  represent  this 
highly  polychromatic  style  are  craters  with  a  flaring  conical  rim 
(Naukratis,  I,  PI.  X,  Figs,  i  and  3),  and  they  have  on  the  inside  a 
different  style  of  decoration.  Here  the  designs  are  in  black,  with 
patterns  showing  the  lotus,  rosettes  and  the  like,  in  red  and  white. 
This  ware  with  its  rich  coloring  is  perhaps  the  most  original  of  the 
Naucratite  styles  which,  as  time  goes  on,  show  that  they  came  to 
feel  strongly  the  influence  of  Corinth  and  Athens. 

The  characteristics  of  Ionic  pottery  are  no  less  marked  in  many 
of  the  vases  which  have  been  found  at  Daphnae,  though  here  the 


FIG.  375.  —  From  Naucratis.    British  Museum 
(A.  985).     (J.H.S.,  VIII,  PI.  79.) 


VASES 


465 


most  important  type  of  ware  (Fig.  376)  is  not  closely  connected  with 
the  "  Rhodian  "  vases,  but  with  the  later  styles  of  the  sarcophagi 
of  Clazomenae  and  the  Caeretan  hydriae.  Some  vase  fragments 
found  at  Clazomenae,  it  should  be  added,  are  so  like  this  Daphnae 
pottery  that  there  are  those  who  believe  it  was  imported  into 
Africa  and  is  not  to  be  classed  as  of  local  manufacture.  This 


FIG.  376. —  From  Daphnae.    British  Museum  (B.  116).     (Ant.  Denk.  II,  PI.  21.) 

view  has  been  much  strengthened  by  the  publication  of  a  series 
of  almost  certainly  Clazomenian  fragments  from  Benha  in  the 
Nile  Delta  (Ant.  Denk.,  II,  Pis.  54-57).  The  technique  is 
illustrated  by  a  series  of  tall,  slim  amphorae,  and  by  stamni  and 
hydriae,  though  in  the  case  of  the  latter  shapes  hardly  more  than 
fragments  remain.  On  some  of  the  earlier  vases  at  Daphnae  a  slip 
is  used  for  the  ground  of  the  decoration,  but  on  the  finer  ones 
the  figures  are  painted  directly  on  the  clay,  which  is  of  a  reddish 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  30 


466  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

yellow  color  and  smoothly  polished.  The  flesh  of  the  women  is 
rendered  in  white,  that  of  the  men  in  brown  ;  but  white  is  also  used 
for  other  purposes,  as,  for  instance,  to  represent  the  dog  seen  below 
the  horse  in  Figure  376.  Another  interesting  fragment  (Antike 
Denkmaler,  II,  PI.  21,  Fig.  3)  shows  two  warriors  facing  one  an- 
other. Here  we  find  the  peculiar  hooks  at  the  front  of  the  helmets 
which  appear  on  the  sarcophagi  of  Clazomenae,  and  the  representa- 
tion of  a  boar  in  white  on  one  of  the  shields  bears  a  very  strong  like- 
ness to  those  on  the  sarcophagi. 

The  interesting  class  of  vases  known  as  Cyrenaic  offers  various 

difficult  problems  which  will  find  adequate  solution  only  when 

the  city  of  Cyrene  is  explored.     This  important  town T 

was  founded  by  Greek  colonists  from  Thera,  probably 

toward  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.     It  lay  near  the 

great  Syrtis,  on  the  trade  route  between  Carthage  and  Egypt,  and 

rapidly  attained  to  a  high  position  in  the  Greek  world.    One  of  the 

chief  staples  of  its  industry  was  the 
agricultural  product  silphium,  and 
the  head  of  the  plant  became  an 
emblem  on  the  coinage  of  the  city. 
It  is  the  weighing  out  of  this  product 
for  export  which  appears  to  be  rep- 
resented on  the  inside  of  an  often 

FIG.  377.  —  Cyhx  with  representa- 
tion inside  of  Arcesiiaus.  Diam.      published  cylix  now  in  the  Cabinet 
0.293  m.    (Photograph.)  des  Medailles  in  the  Bibliotheque 

Nationale  at  Paris.2  The  king  Arcesiiaus  presides  over  the  weigh- 
ing, while  laborers  store  the  silphium,  packed  in  bags,  in  the  hold 
of  a  ship.  The  outside  of  the  cylix  is  represented  in  Figure  377. 
Unfortunately  it  is  not  possible  to  be  sure  which  Arcesiiaus  the 
designer  had  in  mind,  since  there  were  four  kings  of  that  name  at 
Cyrene.  In  all  probability,  however,  it  is  Arcesiiaus  II,  whose 
reign  is  to  be  dated  approximately  from  580-550  B.C.  This  Ar- 
cesiiaus cylix  gave  the  clew  to  the  localizing  of  the  style,  and  about 

1  Cp.  Studniczka,  Kyrcne. 

2  Cp.  Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  III,  p.  1664. 


VASES 


467 


it  have  been  grouped  a  considerable  number  of  vases1  mostly, 
though  not  exclusively,  of  the  cylix  form.  The  designs  are  painted 
in  black  glaze  upon  a  slip  which  varies  from  a  cream  color  to  a 
somewhat  deeper  shade ;  purple  is  also  used  freely,  and  there  are 
skilfully  drawn  incised  lines.  Noteworthy  are  the  effective  con- 
ventionalized flower  patterns  based  upon  the  lotus  and  pome- 
granate, or  perhaps  upon  the  silphium  blossom.  The  scenes 


FlG.  378.  —  Cylix.   British  Museum  (6.4).  Diam.  0.266  m.  (Naucratis,  I,  P1.VIII.> 

represented  by  the  potters  are  treated  with  great  freshness  and 
naivete,  and  cover  a  very  considerable  range  of  subjects,  such  as 
Atlas,  Prometheus,  the  blinding  of  Polyphemus,  Cadmus,  Zeus, 
and  the  representation  of  Arcesilaus  already  mentioned.  One 
interesting  vase  (Fig.  378)  discovered  at  Naucratis,  though  un- 
fortunately much  broken,  represents  in  all  probability  the  nymph 
Cyrene  holding  a  branch  of  silphium  and  a  pomegranate.  The 
field  is  filled  with  little  daemons  who  move  about  the  central  figure. 
Most  of  the  vases  were  found  in  Italy,  though  a  few  have  turned  up 

1  Cp.  Walters,  History,  I,  p.  344  note;  Jh.  Oesf.  Arch.  /.,  1907,  pp.  lo  ft.; 
Rev.  Arch.,  IX,  1907,  pp.  377  ff.,  and  X,  1907,  pp.  36  ff. 


468  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

in  Samos,  and  there  is  the  one  just  mentioned  from  Naucratis.  The 
finding  of  this  latter  vase  raises  the  question  whether  the  pottery 
is  really  Cyrenaic  at  all,  but  taking  everything  into  consideration, 
and  especially  the  fact  that  the  relations  between  Gyrene  and  Nau- 
cratis  were  probably  pretty  close,  there  seems  no  good  ground  for 
doubting  the  correctness  of  the  commonly  accepted  view.  That  4 
it  is  of  Ionic  type,  there  can  be  no  question.1 

The  last  class  of  Ionic  vases  to  be  considered  here,  including 
about  twenty  known  specimens,  is  that  of  the  so-called  Caeretan 
Caeretan  hydriae.  They  were  discovered  at  Caere  (Cervetri)  in 
hydriae  Etruria,  and  represent  what  is  commonly  considered 
the  late  development  of  the  distinctively  Ionic  ceramic  art.  Their 
approximate  date  may  be  placed  at  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  In  general  form  these  hydriae  show  an  egg-shaped  body  with 
well-defined  shoulder.  A  moulded  ring  appears  at  the  juncture 
both  of  the  neck  and  of  the  foot  with  the  body  of  the  vase,  and 
the  handle  at  the  back  is  ribbed.  The  handles  at  the  side  are 
plain,  and  where  they  join  the  body  there  is  a  radiating  tongue- 
pattern.  A  tongue-pattern  is  also  used  on  the  inner  edge  of  the 
mouth  of  the  vases,  as  well  as  on  the  foot  with  concave  outline. 
The  main  design  is  on  a  broad  band  which  includes  the  handles  at 
the  sides,  and  these  separate  the  design  on  the  front  of  the  vase 
from  that  on  the  back,  which  is  often  further  divided  by  a  palmette 
pattern  introduced  at  the  point  of  juncture  between  the  vertical 

1The  so-called  {J.H.S.,  XXX,  1910,  pp.  I  ff.)  Cyrenaic  pottery  has 
been  found  at  Sparta,  and  the  vases  constitute  a  full  series  reaching  from  Geo- 
metric times  to  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  when  a  degeneration  of  the  style  sets  in. 
They  are  thus  presumably  of  local  manufacture.  This  fact  has  led  the  exca- 
vators to  the  conclusion  that  an  earlier  theory  which  regarded  "  Cyrenaic 
ware  as  Laconian  "  is  correct.  If  to  regard  the  pottery  "  as  Laconian  "  merely 
means  that  the  newly  discovered  series  is  of  local  manufacture,  the  reasonable- 
ness of  this  view  will  probably  not  be  disputed;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
means  that  Laconia  was  the  original  home  of  the  ware  and  the  chief  centre  of 
manufacture,  ampler  proof  is  needed.  The  series  of  Proto-Corinthian  vases 
from  the  Argive  Heraeum  is  complete,  but  the  use  of  the  term  "  Argive  "  for 
them  has  not  found  general  acceptance;  see  note  I,  f .  \\\, 


VASES 


469 


handle  and  the  body  of  the  vase.  There  are  commonly  but  two 
subordinate  bands,  one  just  above  the  foot,  decorated  with  rays, 
the  other  with  elaborate  and  often  very  graceful  floral  designs ; 
now  and  then  human  figures  appear  to  have  been  introduced  here 
as  on  the  famous  Busiris  vase  (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  51). 
Often,  too,  extremely  beautiful  floral  designs  are  found  on  the 
shoulder  of  the  vase,  an  ivy  pattern  being  especially  frequent. 
The  neck  is  frequently 
decorated  with  a  pal- 
mette  and  lotus,  or  with  a 
cross,  the  arms  of  which 
are  developed  in  spirals 
or  in  a  meander  ;  occa- 
sionally, however,  ro- 
settes are  introduced 
here,  as  in  Figure  379. 
The  color-scheme  is 
bright,  red  and  white  be- 
ing used,  and  the  black 
of  the  figures  is  laid  di- 
rectly on  the  clay,  with- 
out the  use  of  the  slip  so 
common  in  earlier  Ionic 
work.  Incised  lines  are 
frequent,  sometimes  sur- 
rounding the  entire  out- 
line of  the  figures,  as  is  the  case  in  the  example  shown  in  Figure  380. 
The  Caeretan  hydriae  exhibit  a  great  variety  in  the  subjects, 
often  mythological,  which  are  represented  upon  them.  We  find 
the  Calydonian  boar  hunt,  Europa  and  the  Bull,  the  return  of 
Hephaestus,  Heracles  and  Busiris,  Heracles  bringing  Cerberus 
to  Eurystheus,  etc.  The  vase  representing  Heracles  and  Busiris, 
now  in  Vienna,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  the  whole 
series,  both  in  the  beauty  of  some  of  its  floral  decoration  and 
in  the  life  and  vigor  of  the  scene  portrayed  upon  it.  The  vase- 


FlG.  379.  —  Caeretan  hydria.     Berlin,     h.  0.43  m. 
(Ant.  Denk.  II,  PI.  28,  text.) 


470 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


painters  are  still  in  the  period  of  archaic  naivete,  but  their  work 
shows  great  freshness  and  originality,  and  often  apparently  a  good 
deal  of  humor.  The  hydria  in  Berlin  (Fig.  380)  has  an  especial 
interest  in  that  the  treatment  of  certain  of  the  figures  bears  a  close 
analogy  to  the  work  of  the  Ionic  sculptors  of  the  earlier  marbles 
of  Ephesus  (cp.  Winter,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.  15  (1900),  pp.  83  ff.). 


FlG.  380.  —  From  the  vase  shown  as  Fig.  379. 


It  is  still  a  moot  question  where  these  hydriae  were  made ; 
Phocaea,  Clazomenae,  and  Africa  have  all  been  suggested.  The 
fact  of  importance,  however,  is  that  there  can  be  no  question 
of  their  having  an  Ionic  origin.  This  is  placed  beyond  dispute  by 
the  frequent  resemblances  which  the  vases  afford,  not  only  to  the 
sarcophagi  of  Clazomenae,  but  also  to  the  vases  of  Ionian  tradi- 
tion in  Africa.1  (Cp.  J.  Endt,  Beitrage  zur  ion.  Vasenmalerei.) 

1  Space  forbids  the  consideration  of  other  types  of  Ionic  vases,  but  the 
student's  attention  may  properly  be  called  to  the  important  class  of  cylixes 
which  show  large  eyes  in  pairs  on  the  exterior.  Cp.  Boehlau,  "  lonische  Au- 
genschalen,"  Ath.  Mitt.,  25  (1900),  pp.  40  ff.  A  famous  example  is  care- 
fully published  by  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  41.  Another  Ionic  vase  of  note, 
an  amphora,  upon  which  is  a  quaint  and  interesting  representation  of  the 
Judgment  of  Paris,  is  published  by  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  21. 


VASES 


Attic 

We  have  seen  that  Geometric  vases  reached  a  high  state  of 
development  in  the  Dipylon  style  at  Athens,  and  our  next  step 
is  to  follow  this  development  as  it  advances  from  a  period 
probably  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.  to  the  finest  Attic  ceramic 
art  of  the  fifth  century.  What  we  know  of  many  of  the  influences 
which  contributed  to  the  active  intellectual  life  of  Athens  during 
a  good  portion  of  this  time,  is  strikingly  confirmed  by  the  prog- 
ress in  Attica  of  the  art  of  vase-painting. 

In  the  work  of  the  potters  as  it  passes  out  of  the  Dipylon  period, 
these  influences  from  other  parts  of  Greece  become  at  once  evident, 

and  they  are  well  shown  in  a  series  of  vases  which 

Proto-Attic 
has  come  to  be  known  as  Proto-Attic.     This  .ware  is 

undoubtedly  of  Attic  origin,  and  bridges  over  the  period  between 
the  passing  of  the  Dipylon  vases  and  the  rise  of 
the  Attic  black-figured  style.  The  vases  are 
few  in  number,  and  represent  a  progressive  de- 
velopment rather  than  a  homogeneous  type,  so 
that  they  are  hardly  to  be  looked  on  in  the 
strict  sense  as  a  separate  class.  The  earliest 
specimens  closely  resemble  Dipylon  ware,1  others, 
like  an  amphora  from  Hymettus,  in  Berlin,2 
or  the  Nessus  amphora  (Fig.  382),  show  quite 
different  influences.  A  jug  from  near  Phalerum 
(Fig.  381)  may  be  taken  as  illustrating  an  inter- 
mediate stage.  Its  general  shape  and  the  pro- 
cession of  figures  on  the  neck  are  of  the  Dipylon 
type,  so  also  the  procession  of  animals  on  the  FI(J  _  .  A{h_ 
lowest  figured  band.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
chief  band  which  encircles  the  vase,  with  its 
conventionalized  curvilinear  ornament,  among 
which  lions  in  heraldic  opposition  are  introduced  (these  do  not 
show  in  the  figure),  is  suggestive  of  Ionic,  and  perhaps  even  of 
1  Atk.  Mitt.,  17  (1892),  PI.  X.  *Jakrb.  d.  Inst.,  2  (1887),  PI.  5. 


ens.  h.  0.525  m. 
(Jahrb.  d.  Inst.  II 
(1887),  PI.  4.) 


472 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


Mycenaean,  tradition.   The  general  distribution,  too,  of  the  ornament 
in  continuous  bands,  which  run  around  the  vase  and  are  not  divided 

by  vertical  lines,  shows  the  breaking 
away  from  Geometric  schemes. 

A  further  advance  toward  the  black- 
figured  style  is  shown  in  Figure  382. 
The  shape  of  the  amphora  scarcely 
recalls  the  Dipylon  vases,  and  the 
differences  from  that  style  in  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  decoration  have  become 
much  more  marked  than  the  resem- 
blances to  it.  The  position  of  the 
panel  on  the  neck,  and  the  line  of 
geese  on  the  band  about  the  mouth 
of  the  vase,  recall  Geometric  charac- 
teristics, but  these  are  about  the  only 
features  which  do  so.  A  marked  ap- 
proach to  the  early  black-figured 
vases  is  shown  in  the  representation 
of  Heracles  and  Nessus  in  the  panel 
on  the  neck,  and  by  the  use  of  in- 
scriptions to  designate  the  figures. 
Indeed,  this  scene  and  the  other  one 
(Ant,  Denk.  on  the  body  of  the  vase — the  dead 
Medusa  and  her  fleeing  sisters  — 
make  it  clear  that  here,  as  at  Corinth,  definite  popular  legends 
had  come  to  suggest  subjects  to  the  vase-painters. 

The  Proto-Attic  group  of  vases  includes  further  two  series  that 
might  be  deemed  sub-classes  of  the  main  group  ;  namely,  the  so- 
called  Phaleron  vases  and  the  vases  from  Vourva  near  Marathon. 
These  show  in  varying  degrees  the  combination  of  Geometric 
and  orientalizing  influences,  presumably  Ionic,  which  enter  into 
the  developed  styles  of  Attica.1  The  so-called  Tyrrhenian 

1  Cp.  Boehlau,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  2  (1887),  pp.  33  ff. ;  also  Ath.  Mitt.,  15 
(1890),  pp.  318  ff.,  and  Nilsson,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  18  (1903),  pp.  124  ff. 


FIG.  382.  —  Amphora  with  picture 
of  Heracles  and  Nessus.  Ath- 
ens, h.  1.22  m. 
I,  PI.  57,  text.) 


VASES  473 

amphorae?  though  forming  a  distinct  class  by  themselves,  also 
find  their  place  here  in  the  history  of  Attic  pottery,  though  space 
forbids  more  than  a  passing  mention  of  them.  They  have  been 
called  "  Corintho-Attic "  because,  though  bearing  Attic  inscrip- 
tions, they  strongly  recall  Corinthian  pottery  in  some  of  their 
schemes  of  decoration.  The  vases,  however,  show  affinities  with 
the  earlier  ones  from  Vourva  and  some  resemblance  also  to  Ionic 
work ;  they  serve,  therefore,  to  illustrate  still  further  the  complex 
nature  of  the  elements  which  were  combined  in  the  formation 
of  the  Attic  style. 

The  so-called  black-figured  style  was  well  established  at  Athens 
before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  the  consideration 
of  its  development  fittingly  begins  with  the  Francois  Black- 
vase  now  in  Florence  (Fig.  3&3).2  This  vase,  named  figured 
after  its  discoverer,  was  found  in  1844  near  Chiusi  in  Italy,  but 
in  a  broken  condition,  the  fragments  being  scattered  through  two 
graves.  Probably  it  had  been  broken  in  a  previous  careless  exca- 
vation when  the  graves  were  plundered.  The  pieces  were  put 
together,  and  the  vase,  with  a  few  fragments  found  after  its  restora- 
tion, has  for  many  years  been  on  exhibition  in  the  Archaeological 
Museum  at  Florence.  In  1900  it  was  wantonly  broken  by  an  at- 
tendant in  the  Museum,  but  it  has  since  been  successfully  restored. 
The  shape  of  the  vase,  a  large  wide- mouthed  crater,  recalls  in  some 
measure  that  of  the  Corinthian  celebae,  though  it  naturally  shows 
a  very  marked  advance  on  this  form,  a  fact  that  appears  nowhere 
more  plainly  than  in  the  elegantly  moulded  handles  which  are  in 
themselves  masterpieces  of  the  potter's  art.  The  distribution  of 
the  designs  in  bands  might  perhaps  be  thought  to  recall  Corin- 
thian work,  but,  as  we  have  seen,  this  method  of  decoration  had 
become  familiar  to  the  Attic  painters  before  the  time  of  the  Francois 
vase,  which  is  to  be  dated,  in  all  probability,  in  the  first  half  of 
the  sixth  century  B.C.  Thus  it  is  not  certain  that  the  makers 
of  the  vase  felt  any  very  direct  Corinthian  influence.  The  nature 

1  Thiersch,  Tyrrhenische  Amphoren,  Leipzig,  1899. 

2  Furt.  and  Reich.,  Griech.  Vasenmalerei,  I,  PI.  I,  z,  3,  II,  12,  13. 


474 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


and  distribution  of  the  design  may  be  readily  seen  by  reference 
to. the  following  diagram.  Where  the  designation  of  the  subject 
on  a  given  band  crosses  the  dividing  line,  the  representation  of 


FlG.  383.  —  Francois  vase,  by  Clitias  and  Ergotimus.      Florence  (Museo  Arch.), 
h.  0.66  m.     (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  3.) 

a  single  subject  encircles  the  entire  vase.  The  front  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  back  is  assumed  to  be  the  side  on  which  the 
central  point  in  the  main  band  is  found ;  namely,  the  house  toward 


VASES  475 

which  a  procession  of  the  gods  is  moving  to  honor  the  newly 
wedded  pair,  Peleus  and  Thetis. 


FRONT 


1 .  Calydonian  Boar  Hunt. 

2.  Funeral  games  of  Patroclus. 


BACK 
Dance  of  Theseus  and  youths  on  their 

return  from  Crete. 
Battle  of  Centaurs  and  Lapiths. 


Return  of  Hephaestus, 
of  Animals. 


3.  Tongue  pattern. 

4.  Procession  of  the  gods. 

5.  Achilles  and  Troilus. 

6.  Bant 

7.  Ra  ys. 

8.  Tongue  pattern. 

g.  Pygmies  a  nd  Cranes. 

jo.  Tonguejpattern. 

On  the  handles,  the  flat  portions  of  which  are  divided  by 
horizontal  lines  into  three  rectangular  fields,  are  represented  Ajax 
carrying  off  the  body  of  Achilles,  the  so-called  "Persian  Artemis," 
and  a  running  gorgon.  The  designs  are  essentially  the  same  on 
both  handles,  though  in  the  corresponding  figures  there  are  deli- 
cately introduced  variations. 

The  scenes  represented  can  all  be  identified  with  certainty, 
for  all  but  that  of  the  Pygmies  and  Cranes  have  inscriptions. 
The  designers  evidently  intended  to  celebrate  the  house  of  Peleus 
in  their  selection  for  the  front,  since  here  the  scenes  are  all 
connected  either  with  Peleus  or  with  his  son  Achilles.  Those, 
however,  on  the  other  side  have  to  do  with  Attic  legend,  unless 
the  "Return  of  Hephaestus"  be  excepted,  but  this  subject  was 
a  favorite  one  with  the  Athenian  vase-painters,  perhaps  because 
the  god  was  the  especial  patron  of  all  handicraft. 

One  cannot  too  greatly  admire  the  skill  with  which  so  com- 
plicated a  composition  has  been  distributed  upon  the  surface  of 
the  vase.  On  the  band  which  bears  the  representation  of  the 
battle  between  the  Pygmies  and  Cranes  this  ability  of  the  painter 
in  purely  decorative  design  is  perhaps  especially  marked,  for 
here  our  attention  is  attracted  not  so  much  by  the  designer's 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

interest  in  the  legend  as  by  his  ability  to 
use  the  lines  of  his  composition  in  a  highly 
effective  manner,  covering  the  field  at  the 
same  time  with  the  greatest  skill.  Much 
the  same  quality,  if  perhaps  less  attract- 
ively displayed,  is  seen  in  the  representa- 
tion of  the  Calydonian  boar  hunt  (Fig. 
384),  where  the  balance  of  the  composi- 
tion is  admirably  worked  out.  The  painter 
used  bright  colors  freely  ;  red  and  purple 
were  painted  on  over  the  black  of  the  sil- 
houettes, but  the  white  so  freely  used  was 
laid  directly  on  the  clay  ground.  When 
in  an  uninjured  state,  the  vase  must  have 
presented  a  very  gay  color-scheme.  To 
class  such  vases  as  black-figured  is  of 
course  really  incorrect,  but  the  term  has 
become  fixed  by  long  use.  In  the  early 
period  of  the  style,  however,  it  is  only 
truly  appropriate  as  describing  the  vase  in 
what  might  be  called  its  silhouette  stage, 
before  the  bright  colors  have  been  laid  on. 
The  Francois  vase,  as  the  signatures  of 
the  painter  (Clitias)  and  potter  (Ergoti- 

mus)    upon    it    show    (KXtrtas    ft'  eypauf/tv, 
and  *EpyoTt/>tos  //.'  cTron/o-ei')  ,*  was  the  work 


1  Signatures  appear  for  the  most  part  in  the 
forms  shown  by  the  following  examples  :  (  i  )  Ta- 
XeiSijs  tiroiijffev.  (2)  'ETTI'/CTT/TOS  eypaij/ev.  (3)  As 
on  the  Francois  vase.  (4)  'E^TjK/as  eypa\f/e  /cai 
'TrotTjtre  /ue.  (5)  I'XauKi5rr;s  /a  eVoirjfrei',  Ap^t/cX^s 
tiroiriffev,  (two  potters)  the  latter  form  being  cer- 
tainly very  rare.  The  same  artist  may,  however, 
now  sign  tirolrjtre  and  again  typa^e  (Euphronius 
is  an  example),  a  fact  which  plainly  suggests,  as 
does  (3),  a  differentiation  between  the  work  of 


VASES  477 

of  two  collaborators  who  no  doubt  conducted  one  of  the  many 
manufactories  of  vases  which  existed  at  Athens. 

potter  and  painter.  On  black-figured  vases  eypa^ev  does  not  often  occur, 
and  it  therefore  seems  likely  that  tiroirjffev  may  be  used  to  cover  the  painter's 
work  as  well  as  that  of  the  potter  in  vases  of  this  class,  as  may  indeed  have 
been  the  case  whenever  the  word  is  used  alone  at  any  period.  At  a  time, 
however,  when  eypa\{/ev  is  commonly  found,  it  seems  quite  possible  that,  if  it 
is  omitted  and  tirolrjffev  alone  is  used,  we  have  merely  a  partial  record  of 
manufacture,  showing  only  that  the  inscribed  vase  comes  from  a  given  pottery. 
The  painting  would  then  probably  have  been  done  by  some  subordinate  person 
in  the  establishment.  Thus  in  the  case  of  Euphronius  the  theory  seems  a 
likely  one  that  he  signs  his  earlier  vases  eypa^/ev,  and  that  later  vases  inscribed 
iiroL^ffev  merely  come  from  his  pottery.  (See  valuable  articles  by  Pottier,  Gaz. 
d.  Beaux  Arts,  1902,  and  Hauser,  Berliner  philol.  Wochenschr.,  1907,  p.  693.) 

Besides  the  several  forms  of  signatures,  vases  may  also  bear  inscriptions  of 
various  kinds  expressing  ownership  or  giving  explanation  of  the  scene  de- 
picted (a  practice  followed  'in  some  early  sculpture  in  relief  and  employed 
also  by  the  painter  Polygnotus),  or  they  may  be  invocations  or  exhortations 
or  may  take  the  form  of  the  so-called  /caX6s  names.  These  latter  names  have 
been  much  discussed  (cp.  Klein's  Griechische  Vasen  mit  Lieblingsinschriften), 
but  a  good  deal  of  obscurity  still  attaches  to  their  use.  They  are  found  in 
such  forms,  for  example,  as  Mi\Tiddt]s  /caX6s,  that  is,  "  Miltiades  is  fair,"  or 
rarely  with  a  woman's  name  and  /caX^,  or  again  in  the  less  specific  form 
of  6  or  TJ  TTCUJ  *aX6s  or  /caXiJ.  The  known  vases  which  bear  the  *aX6s 
inscriptions  number  about  five  hundred  and  sixty,  and  the  custom  of  thus 
inscribing  pottery  reaches  its  height  in  Athens  during  the  fifth  century  B.C. 
The  names  are  very  generally  aristocratia  in  character,  and  a  few  of  them 
are  almost  certainly  those  of  persons  known  to  history.  When  this  is  the  case, 
we  have  a  guide  to  the  date  of  the  vase.  The  inscriptions  are  pretty  clearly 
in  the  nature  of  compliments  to  persons  often  prominent  among  the  jeunesse 
doree  of  Athens,  and  it  seems  rather  significant  that  they  occur  more  fre- 
quently on  the  cylix  than  on  other  vases;  that  is,  on  the  vase  which  was  in 
common  use  at  fashionable  symposia.  The  host  may  have  complimented  his 
guest  or  his  friend  by  having  the  guest's  or  friend's  name  inscribed  on  the 
cup  from  which  he  was  to  drink  his  wine.  The  vase  would  thus  become  a 
kind  of  "  favor."  Vases  with  only  6  or  17  7ra?s  on  them  might  of  course 
always  stand  in  the  potters'  shops  ready  to  the  buyer's  need. 

On  the  not  unlikely  theory  that  a  youth  would  not  have  been  called  KaX6s 
for  more  than  about  ten  years  certain  chronological  deductions  have  been 
based  (Hartwig,  Meisterschaltri)  :  (l)  That  vases  of  one  master  bearing 


478  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

As  the  black-figured  style  develops  in  the  period  succeeding 
the  Francois  vase,  a  few  general  characteristics  may  be  noted. 
The  inclination  on  the  part  of  potters  to  choose  mythological 
subjects  continues,  and,  though  the  genre  scenes  which  appear 
often  on  red-figured  vases  are  found,  they  are  rather  the  excep- 
tion. The  tendency,  however,  among  Greek  artists  to  follow  types 
in  their  work  sometimes  obliterates  the  distinction  between  myth- 
ological and  other  scenes.  A  type,  for  example,  which  represents 
warriors  preparing  for  battle  is  easily  brought  into  connection  with 
epic  legend  by  the  addition  of  a  few  inscriptions.  The  use  of 
bright  colors  and  white  is  more  restricted,  and  the  vases  are 
more  truly  black-figured,  details  and  patterns  being  brought  out 
by  the  elaborate  use  of  incised  lines.  In  drawing  generally,  and 
in  the  skill  shown  in  delineating  drapery,  there  is  a  steady 
advance,  though  the  work  is  still  stiff  and  hard.  The  eye  of  the 
men  is  round  and  staring,  that  of  the  women  almond-shaped, 
and  the  flesh  of  women  is  commonly  white.  The  chief  shapes 
found  are  those  of  the  amphora,  hydria,  cylix,  oenochoe,  and 
lecythus,  but  the  amphora,  with  its  principal  decoration  often  in 
a  panel,  is  especially  characteristic  of  the  black-figured  style. 

The  names  of  over  forty  potters  and  painters  who  worked  in  this 

style  are  known,  though  most  of  these  are  represented  by  very 

few  vases.     Three  of  the  leading  artists  may  here  be 

briefly  mentioned,- — Amasis,  Execias,  and  Nicosthenes. 

Amasis,1  whose  name  suggests  that  he  was  a  foreigner,  and  some  of 

the  same  *caX6s-name  are  contemporary  within  ten  years.  (2)  That  vases 
by  different  masters  are  contemporary  within  ten  years,  if  they  bear  the  same 
KaX6s-name.  (3)  That  two  /caX6s-names  on  the  same  vase  show  the  persons 
named  to  be  within  ten  years  of  one  another.  The  restriction  "  on  the  same 
vase  "  is  necessary  because  of  the  pretty  regular  recurrence  at  Athens  of  the 
same  name  in  different  generations.  The  large  series  of  vases  bearing 
KctXij-names  has  been  classified  in  accordance  with  such  names,  and  this 
classification  has  yielded  interesting  results  in  the  study  of  the  styles  of 
certain  potters  and  painters. 

1  Cp.  especially  Karo,  Jour.  Hell.  Stud.,  XIX  (1899),  pp.  135  ff.,  and 
Hauser,  Jh.  Oest.  Arch.  I.,  1907,  pp.  I  ff. 


VASES 


479 


whose  work  has  indeed  a  strong  Ionic  flavor,  has  left  seven  signed 
vases  (all  with  eW^o-tv) ,  three  amphorae,  and  four  jugs.1  His 
work,  however,  shows  considerable  individuality  and  hence  many 
unsigned  vases  have  been  attributed  to  him.  Figures  385  and  386 
show  one  of  his  best-known  vases,  now  in  Paris.  On  the  front 
are  Athena  and  Poseidon  in  conversation,  and  the  corresponding 


FlG.  385.  —  Amphora,  by  Amasis.     Paris,  Bibliotheque  Nationale.    h.  0.33  m. 
(Wiener  Vorlegebldtter,  1889,  PI.  III.) 


scene  on  the  back  represents  Dionysus  and  two  maenads, 
double  "  rays "  at  the  foot  are  characteristic  of  Amasis^  The 
figures  here  are  somewhat  more  rigid  in  their  archaic  stiffness 
than  on  some  other  vases  of  this  master,  but  they  show  well 
the  minute  delicacy  of  his  work,  and  the  line  of  warriors  which 

1  The  fragment  of  a  cylix  in  Boston  also  bears  his  signature.    Cp.  A.J.A., 
1907,  pp.  149  ff. 


480 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


is  on  the  shoulder  of  the 
vase  exhibits  his  skill  in 
using  a  row  of  figures  for 
purely  decorative  pur- 
poses. 

The  work  of  Execias 
is  similar  to  that  of  Ama- 

sis,     though 

Execias 
some  of  his 

vases  have  an  exception- 
ally picturesque  charm.1 
His  signature  is  found 
on  four  amphorae  and 
FIG.  386.  -  See  Fig.  385.  four  cylixes,  and  on  two 

fragments,  one  of  which  is  part  of  a  fine  dinus  that  was  decorated 
with  a  row  of  ships  about  the  inside  of  the  mouth.2  The  signatures 
are  generally  simply  tTrotr/o-ev,  though 
in  a  few  instances  eypai/Ki/  also  is 
added.  Figure  387  shows  a  panel 
amphora  by  Execias  with  a  represen- 
tation of  Heracles  in  his  combat  with 
the  triple-bodied  Geryon — a  compo- 
sition which  was  no  doubt  traditional 
in  origin  and  was  transmitted  with 
few  modifications  to  the  later  paint- 
ers of  the  red-figured  style.  The 
herdsman  Eurytus  has  already  fallen, 

1  Cp.  especially  the  fine  vase  represent- 
ing Achilles  and  Ajax  playing  at  pessi  and 
the  return  of  Castor  and  Polydeuces,  Wie- 
ner  Vorlegeblatter,  1888,  PI.  VI,  la;    and 

Fig-  387- 

2  A    similar   scheme    of   decoration    is  ^    3g7._  Amphora  by  Execias. 
shown  on  a  dinus  in  Boston   (Catalogue  Louvre,    h.  050111.     (Wiener 
No.  378).  Vorlegebl.,  1888,  PI.  V.) 


VASES  481 

shot  through  the  head  with  an  arrow,  and  one  body  of  Geryon 
has  in  like  manner  been  put  hors  de  combat  (this  is  not  clearly 
shown  in  the  figure)  ;  the  hero  next  attacks  the  remaining  bodies 
with  his  sword. 


FIG.  388.  —  Cylix  by  Execias.     Munich.     Diam.  0.304  m.     (Furt.  and  Reich., 

I,  PI.  42.) 

Cf  all  the  works  of  Execias,  none  is  more  attractive  than  (he 
representation  of  Dionysus  on  the  interior  of  a  cylix  at  Munich 
(Fig.  388).  In  general  shape  and  in  the  scheme  of  decoration  on 
the  outside,  which  has  the  conventionalized  "eyes,"  the  vase  is  of 
Ionic  character.  It  is,  however,  the  design  on  the  inside  which  is 
of  paramount  interest.  Dionysus  is  represented  as  sailing  over 

GREEK   ARCH.  —  3! 


482 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


the  sea,  bearing  his  gifts  to  mankind.  Such  a  legend  of  the  god 
was  a  part  of  the  current  mythology,  as  is  shown  in  a  fragment  of 
the  comic  poet  Hermippus  (Kock,  Frag.  Com.  Graec.  63),  and  the 
vase-painter  has  illustrated  it  with  real  poetic  feeling.  The  god 

reclines  at  ease  in  his 
ship,  about  the  mast 
of  which  twines  a 
grapevine  heavily 
laden  with  fruit.  The 
dolphins  in  the  field 
symbolize  the  sea. 
The  potter  has  used  a 
reddish  slip  to  height- 
en the  color  of  the 
background,  an  un- 
usual addition  to  the 
common  technique, 
though  it  is  found  on 
a  few  fine  specimens 
of  the  red- figured 
style  (cp.  Furt.  and 
Reich.,  I,  PI.  22). 

The  work  of  Nicos- 
thenes,  the  third  pot- 
ter of  the 
Nicosthenes    .  .     ,     _ 

black  -  fig- 
ured style  selected  for 
mention,    is    strongly 
individual  in  charac- 
ter.    It  has  much  of 
the     brightness     and 
variety  that  we  associate  with  the  Ionic  styles  and  in  the  shapes 
used  often  approaches  closely  to  metal  technique1  (Fig.  389). 
Some  seventy-eight  vases  bear  his  signature,  and  they  show  great 
1  Cp.  Wien.  Vorlegebl.,  1890,  for  many  of  his  vases. 


FlG.  389.  —  Amphora,  by  Nicosthenes.  Vatican. 
Museo  Gregor.  (Photograph.)  Probably  No.  9 
in  Klein's  Meistersignaturen.  (Unpublished  ?) 


VASES  483 

variety  of  form,  though  the  amphora  of  peculiar  shape,1  with  flat 
handles,  is  the  most  common.  In  general  the  subjects  are  treated 
in  a  purely  decorative  way,  without  evidence  of  much  interest  in 
current  legend,  but  there  are  a  few  noteworthy  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  like  the  scenes  representing  Athena  and  Heracles,  on  two  jugs 
in  the  Louvre,  and  a  group  of  the  gods,  on  a  pyxis  in  Florence. 
Though  following  the  black-figured  technique  in  the  main,  Nicos- 
thenes  was  an  innovator,  and  he  may  properly  enough  be  classed 
with  those  potters  who  represent  the  transition  to  the  red-figured 
style ;  indeed,  he  occasionally  uses  this  latter  technique  and  in  one 
instance  he  works  with  Epictetus,  an  early  master  of  this  style. 
Especially  noteworthy  at  this  period  is  his  occasional  employment 
of  a  white  slip  for  a  background,  as  on  the  Louvre  jugs  referred  to 
above  ;  and  a  further  and  still  more  striking  innovation  is.seen  in  the 
use  on  an  amphora  in  the  Louvre  (catalogue  no.  F.  114)  of  light, 
opaque  color  for  the  figure  represented,  this  color  being  laid  on 
the  black  glaze.2  Here  Nicosthenes  has  virtually  adopted  the 
underlying  principle  of  the  red-figured  technique. 

Before  passing  to  a  consideration  of  the  red-figured  style  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  so-called  Panathenaic  Amphorae?  a  special 
class  of  black- figured  vases  which  persisted  long  after  Panathenaic 
the  style  had  passed  out  of  general  use  and  which  show  amphorae 
in  their  development  the  decadence  of  the  vase-painters'  work. 
These  amphorae,  found  for  the  most  part  in  Italy,  but  of  un- 
doubted Attic  origin,  were  used  as  prizes  at  the  Panathenaic  festi- 
val. They  are  generally  tall  and  slim  in  form,  at  least  in  the  later 
and  more  numerous  examples,  and  have  an  unusually  small  foot 
and  lightly  made  handles.  Whether  they  were  actually  used  to 
hold  a  portion  of  the  prize  of  oil  is  perhaps  doubtful.  The  vases 
are  generally  decorated  according  to  the  following  scheme  which 
naturally  shows  some  minor  modifications  at  different  periods :  on 

1  The    shape   may  be  derived   from    Tonia.      Cp.  Pettier,  B.CJI.,  1893, 
p.  431  ff. 

»  Cp.  Six,  Gaz.  Arch.,  1888,  pp.  193  ff.  and  281  ff. 

8  Cp.  G.  v.  Brauchitsch,  Die  Panathcnaischen  Preisamphoren. 


484  GREEK    ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  front  is  a  figure  of  Athena  Promachus  between  two  columns 
which  are  often  surmounted  by  cocks,  sometimes  by  figures  of  Nike, 
and  occasionally  by  some  other  figure,  as  that  of  Triptolemus,  for 
example.  Inscriptions  running  the  length  of  the  column  are  intro- 
duced in  a  regular  formula,  TWV  'AOrjvrjOev  aO\.wv,  "  from  the  games 
at  Athens,"  and  in  a  large  number  of  examples  the  archon's  name 
is  added  in  a  second  inscription.  In  this  way  there  is  preserved  a 
series  of  datable  vases  which  extends  from  367  to  311  B.C.  On  the 
back  of  the  vases  is  painted  an  athletic  scene  in  the  games.  These 
scenes,  interesting  as  they  often  are  in  themselves,  are  noteworthy 
for  their  frequent  combination  of  the  black-figured  technique  with 
the  freer  drawing  which  belongs  to  later  styles. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  a  consideration  of  the  red-figured  style.    There 
has  been  much  discussion  as  to  its  origin,  but  thus  far  the  conclusions 

reached  have  lacked  definiteness.1    In  all  probability 
Red-figured     ,       ,        ,  .  ,-  ,       ,  ,     ,    ,. 

the  breaking  away  from  the  black-figured  technique 

came  simply  from  a  tendency  to  make  figures  show  light  against 
a  dark  background.  This  was  no  new  thing.  It  may  be  seen  on 
Naucratite  ware  in  the  head  of  the  sphinx  (Fig.  375)  where  a  lustrous 
white  appears  against  a  cream-colored  background,  or  still  better, 
in  the  figure  of  the  boar  on  the  Clazomenae  sarcophagus  (Fig.  374), 
where  the  background  was  black,  or  on  the  vases  cited  on  page  483, 
note  2,  or  indeed  in  the  frequent  use  of  white  for  some  of  the  figures 
on  black-figured  ware.  This  practice  of  showing  the  light  figure 
against  a  dark  background  is  the  normal  principle  of  the  red-figured 
style,  and  the  establishment  of  the  new  system  is  apparently  due,  in 
a  measure  at  least,  to  the  attainment  by  the  vase  decorators  of  great 
ability  in  the  use  of  line  drawing.  In  the  rendering  of  details  in- 
cision disappears  and  in  its  place  comes  the  delicate  black  line, 
commonly  in  the  form  of  the  relief  line ;  without  great  skill  in 
draughtsmanship  the  new  technique  would  have  been  impossible. 
The  beginnings  of  the  red-figured  style  reach  back  somewhat  be- 
yond the  last  quarter  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  with  its  develop- 

'•  Cp.  R.  Norton  A.J.A,,  ist  series,  XI  (1896),  pp.  35  ff.,  and  Louise  Nichols, 
VI,  2d  series  (1902),  pp.  327  ff. 


VASES  485 

ment  through  the  succeeding  century  it  may  fairly  be  said  that 
Greek  vase-painting  becomes  Attic  vase-painting,  so  entirely  do  the 
Athenian  potters  take  the  lead  in  their  art.  It  is  often  the  prac- 
tice to  use  a  more  or  less  elaborate  classification  in  tracing  the  prog- 
ress of  red-figured  vase-painting,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  great  gain 
in  this.  The  essential  fact  is  that  we  are  able  to  follow  the  work  of 
the  painters  through  a  "severe  style,"  which  in  itself  Severe  and 
exhibits  a  marked  growth  in  skill,  into  what  is  com-  fine  styles 
monly  known  as  the  "fine  style,"  and  then  to  witness,  in  florid  and 
careless  work,  the  loss  of  the  earlier  originality  and  vigor.  The 
period  of  the  development  of  these  two  styles  extends  over  some- 
what more  than  a  century,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  possible  during 
most  of  this  time  to  trace  a  gradual  and  steady  advance  in  draughts- 
manship and  in  skillful  composition  gives  the  vases  of  the  period  a 
peculiar  importance  in  the  study  of  Greek  painting,  because  in  them 
we  no  doubt  see  on  a  small  scale  the  process  that  was  going  on  in 
the  development  of  the  works  of  the  greater  artists  now  lost  to  us. 
Before  passing  to  a  consideration  of  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant painters  of  red-figured  vases,  it  will  be  well  to  note  some 
general  features  in  the  development  of  the  style.  In  Qenerai 
the  choice  of  subjects  the  mythological  tradition  is  character- 
still  retained,  but  with  it  there  is  a  marked  tendency  lstlcs 
to  depict  scenes  from  everyday  life.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
among  certain  of  the  earlier  masters,  who  are  often  spoken  of 
as  the  Epictetan  group,  from  the  most  typical  painter  of  this 
period,  Epictetus.  A  little  later,  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  another  group  of  masters  of  the  "  severe "  style, 
chiefly  cylix  painters,  again  portray  mythological  scenes  most  fre- 
quently, and  with  great  skill  and  originality.  These  men,  among 
whom  Euphronius,  Duris,  Hieron,  and  Brygus  are  leaders,  rep- 
resent the  "  severe  "  style  at  its  best  and  their  works  are  among 
the  most  important  specimens  of  Greek  ceramic  art.  Although, 
as  has  been  said,  mythological  scenes  predominate  in  the  vases 
of  this  group,  the  painters  did  not  neglect  the  portrayal  of  scenes 
of  a  contemporary  character,  and  we  have  from  their  hands  a 


486  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

good  many  representations  of  subjects  taken  from  Athenian  life. 
Side  by  side  with  this  tendency  toward  greater  realism  in  the 
choice  of  subjects  —  a  tendency  which  shows  itself  in  the  treat- 
ment even  of  the  popular  legendary  themes  — a  marked  and 
steady  advance  is  to  be  seen  both  in  the  composition  of  the 
pictures  and  in  the  drawing.  The  vase-painters,  either  directly 
or  because  they  are  familiar  with  the  works  of  the  greater  painters, 
feel  an  influence  that  comes  from  the  study  of  such  groupings  of 
figures  as  might  catch  the  eye  of  the  artist  at  the  symposium  or 
the  palaestra.  The  many  vases,  for  example,  which  are  decorated 
with  scenes  from  the  labors  of  Theseus,  a  favorite  hero  at  this  pe- 
riod, appear  to  reflect  pretty  closely  the  athletic  life  of  the  day,  nor 
is  it  unlikely  that  the  influence  of  the  theatre  may  have  played  a 
role  in  the  increase  of  dramatic  power  which  the  vase-painters  show, 
even  though  it  be  impossible  to  prove  any  direct  connection  with 
the  drama. 

Again,  some  of  the  compositions,  like  Brvgus's  Capture  of  Troy 
(Fig.  394),  and  many  others,  suggest  the  thought  that  groups  may 
perhaps  have  been  copied  with  some  adaptation  from  large  paint- 
ings. At  any  rate,  it  is  certain  that  between  the  Epictetan  vase- 
painters  and  the  later  masters  of  the  "  severe  style  "  there  is  a 
marked  difference  in  the  skill  shown  in  the  effective  and  symmet- 
rical grouping  of  figures.  In  the  earlier  period  they  seem  iso- 
lated ;  later,  skillfully  balanced  groups  of  two  and  three  figures 
are  the  rule.  The  advance  in  drawing  is  no  less,  marked.  This 
shows  itself  chiefly  in  the  gradual  growth  of  the  ability  to  use  fore- 
shortening, and  it  is  coincident  with  the  giving  up  of  the  so-called 
"law  of  frontality"  in  sculpture,  as  the  archaic  period  in  that  art 
passes  away.1  Through  this  advance  the  vase-painters  are  able  to 
introduce  immensely  greater  variety  in  the  positions  of  figures,  and 
a  hasty  comparison  of  the  works  of  the  Epictetan  group  with 
those  of  the  later  masters  of  the  "  severe  "  period  shows  how  de- 
cided a  change  had  taken  place. 

1  Cp.  P.  Gardner,  Grammar  of  Greek  Art.,  p.  56,  and  more  fully  Lange, 
Darstellung  des  Menschen,  pp.  x  ff. 


VASES  487 

In  the  treatment  of  drapery,  too,  the  progress  is  evident. 
In  the  period  of  Epictetus  there  remains  much  of  the  stiff  for- 
mality of  the  black-figured  style,  but  by  the  .time  of  even  the 
earlier  vases  of  Euphronius  there  is  a  feeling  for  the  flow  of  the 
garment  and  for  the  changes  of  its  lines  on  the  moving  figure. 
Improvement  in  the  delineation  of  drapery  was  no  doubt  aided 
by  the  actual  change  in  the  fashion  of  the  garments.  The  stiff, 
scant  garments  with  their  oriental  embroidery,  such  as  are  seen 
on  the  Francois  vase  and  on  the  vases  of  Amasis  and  Execias, 
were  no  longer  in  vogue,  and  the  simpler,  more  flowing  robes, 
which  came  in  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century  B.C., 
carried  in  themselves  a  suggestion  of  graceful  line.  Another 
detail  in  which  the  growing  skill  of  the  painters  can  be  clearly 
followed  is  the  delineation  of  the  eye  in  profile,  though  it  is  not 
until  the  "severe  style"  is  past  and  the  "fine  style"  well  estab- 
lished, about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  that  this  feature  is 
naturally  rendered. 

In  the  matter  of  the  forms  of  vases  we  find  rather  a  develop- 
ment of  earlier  types  than  any  radically  new  inventions.  The 
amphora  appears  in  the  old  form  with  a  panel,  in  the  very  graceful 
type  known  as  "  Nolan  "  (p.  417),  and  in  the  less  pleasing  type  of  the 
pelice.  Allied  to  the  amphora  is  the  stamnus,  which  is  rather 
characteristic  of  the  earlier  reel-figured  ware.  The  psycter  also 
appears,  but  it  is  at  no  time  a  common  form.  The  hydria  con- 
tinues in  use  and  often  takes  the  form  of  the  somewhat  more 
curvilinear  calpis.  The  crater  develops  with  considerable  variety, 
and  the  so  called  calyx  form,  the  bell- shaped  form,  and  the  large 
and  often  magnificent  volute-handled  crater  are  introduced  ;  such 
types  are,  however,  found  commonly  in  the  later  development  of 
the  style.  The  oenochoe,  lecythus,  and  pyxis  are  common,  and 
there  are  many  shapes  of  the  rhyton  and  ascus.  It  is,  however, 
in  the  decoration  of  the  cylix  that  the  painters  of  red-figured  vases 
excel,  especially  down  to  the  end  of  the  "  severe  "  period.  This 
form  of  vase  in  the  finest  specimens  attains  to  great  elegance  of 
outline,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  the  signed 


488  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

examples  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  any  other  shape.  It 
is  thus  distinctly  the  characteristic  vase  of  this  time,  and  holds  a 
position  of  peculiar  importance. 

Besides  certain  of  the  general  features  already  mentioned,  the  use 
of  ornamental  patterns1  on  red-figured  vases  affords  some  indica- 
tion of  chronological  sequence,  and  has  thus  historical  importance 
apart  from  its  interest  in  the  study  of  pure  design.  The  matter 
can  here  have  only  the  briefest  mention.  Such  ornamentation  on 
red-figured  vases  is  kept  rigidly  subordinate  to  the  chief  subject 
of  decoration,  and  its  motives  are  generally  those  of  the  con- 
ventionalized palmette  in  various  forms,  of  the  meander,  often 
broken  by  a  cross,  of  the  egg  pattern,  and  not  uncommonly  of  a 
simple  form  of  net  pattern.  The  lotus  also  is  used,  but  it  is 
less  frequent,  and  occasionally  elegant  bands  of  laurel-wreaths 
more  realistically  treated  are  found.  In  the  earlier  stages  the 
black-figured  technique  is  often  used  on  ornamental  bands,  even 
when  the  later  style  has  become  fully  established.  This  occurs 
on  vases  of  the  amphora  and  hydria  types  where  the  picture  is 
framed  by  a  border,  a  device  which  comes  naturally  from  the  use 
of  the  panel  on  black-figured  amphorae  2  and  which  tends  to  dis- 
appear as  the  style  advances.  Beneath  the  handles  a  simple 
palmette  is  often  introduced,  and  in  the  progress  of  the  style 
this  develops  in  a  very  marked  way,  so  that  on  such  a  series  of 
late  Attic  vases  as  has  been  found  at  Kertch  in  the  Crimea,  which 
may  be  dated  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  and 
possibly  somewhat  later,  a  good  deal  of  the  surface  of  the  vase  is 
occupied  by  such  floral  designs.  Upon  the  cytixes  the  develop- 
ment of  the  palmette  under  the  handles  is  especially  well  marked.3 
From  a  simple  single  palmette,  or  from  one  on  either  side  of  the 
handles,  grows  an  elaborate  and  very  freely  treated  series  con- 
nected by  tendrils,  so  that  in  some  examples  from  about  the 

1  Cp.  Walters,  History,  II,  pp.  209  ff.,  on  the  general  subject. 

2  Furt.  and   Reich.,  I,  PI.  4,  where  the   same  subject  is   represented  on 
different  sides  of  the  vase  in  black-figured  and  red-figured  technique. 

3  Cp.  F.  Winter,  Jahrb.  <L  Inst.,  1892,  pp.  105  ff. 


VASES  489 

middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  the  design  often  attains  great 
richness  and  grace.  The  encircling  band  which  frames  the 
picture  on  the  interior  of  these  vases  also  shows  change  at  dif- 
ferent periods.  At  first  it  is  only  a  plain  line ;  then  a  meander 
of  simple  pattern  is  used,  and  later  this  assumes  a  more  elabo- 
rate character  by  the  insertion,  at  intervals,  of  black  squares  upon 
which  some  form  of  cross  or  checker  pattern  is  introduced.1 

It  has  already  been  said  (p.  483)  that  a  stage  of  transition  may 
be  noted  before  the  red-figured  style  becomes  fully  established. 

This  is  illustrated  most  perfectly  on  the  vases  of  the 

...  .         ill,,,,       Andocides 

potter  Andocides,  who  often  employed  both  the  black- 

and  the  red-figured  technique  on  the  same  vase.  His  signed  work 
and  many  of  the  vases  allied  to  it  have  been  discussed  in  essays 
mentioned  in  the  subjoined  note,2  and  to  call  attention  to  these 
must  serve  the  present  purpose. 

Among  the  names  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  painters  and  potters 
whose  work  illustrates  the  "severe"  period  of  red-figured  painting 
in  its  earlier  stages,  those  of  Epictetus,  Pamphaeus,  and  Chachry- 
lion  are  worthy  of  special  note.  Epictetus  alone  must  here  serve 
as  the  type,  but  the  others,  who,  unlike  him,  sign  only  as  potters 
(eWi/aev)  deserve  the  attention  of  students  —  Pamphaeus  for  the 
vigor  of  some  of  his  work,  and  Chachrylion  from  the  fact  that  he 
marks  the  transition  to  the  later  painters  of  the  "severe  style." 
Individual  vases  of  other  masters  are  indeed  often  of  about  equal 
merit,  and  some  also  that  are  unsigned,  or  that  can  be  connected  with 
signed  ones  only  by  the  fact  that  they  bear  the  same  xaXos-name 
(see  note,  p.  476),  maybe  no  less  valuable  as  illustrations  of  style. 

Epictetus,  who  always  signs  ey/oai/'tv,  and  whose  signed  work  we 
may  thus  believe  to  be  from  his  own  hand,  has  left  his  signature  on 
some  twenty-six  vases,  cylixes  and  plates  (mvaKes)  for  the  most  part. 

1  Cp.  A.  S.  Murray  and  C.  Smith,  Designs  on  Greek  Vases,  passim. 

3  Cp.  A.J.A.,  articles  referred  to  in  the  note  on  p.  484;  Furt.  and  Reich., 
I,  Text,  pp.  15  ff.;  II,  Text,  pp.  267  ff.  Two  vases  of  importance  here  are  the 
cylix  in  Palermo,  published  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  1889,  PI.  4,  and  a  fine  amphora  in 
Boston,  Forman  Collection,  305,  Report  of  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  1899,  p.  81. 


490  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

A  few  of  these  have  the  interior  in  the  black-figured  technique,  so 
that,  apart  from  qualities  of  style,  he  is  rightly  deemed  to  be  among 

the  very  earliest  of  the  masters  of  the  newer  method. 
Epictetus      T     .  .          ,  ,    r      .  .   .     _, 

It  is  worth  noting  that  on  one  vase  (of  which  Pam- 

phaeus  is  the  potter)  he  has  used  the  Ionic  "eyes."  The  date  of 
Epictetus  may  be  placed  approximately  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  It  has  frequently  been  remarked  that  the  great 
nicety  and  care  which  characterizes  his  work,  and  especially  its  sug- 
gestion of  miniature  painting,  betray  the  influence  of  the  so-called 
"  Minor  Artists,"  of  whom  Tleson  is  the  chief  representative,  and 
who,  toward  the  close  of  the  period  of  the  black-figured  vases, 
manufactured  delicately  formed  cylixes  with  single  miniature  fig- 
ures, commonly  of  animals,  introduced  on  the  outside  of  the  rim  of 
the  vase.  Sometimes,  too,  these  artists  decorated  the  interior 
of  their  cups  with  a  small  central  medallion.  In  any  case,  we 
find  in  the  work  of  Epictetus  a  continuation  of  the  spirit  of  those 
masters  of  the  black-figured  style,  who  especially  love  refined 
detail,  and  much  also  of  their  archaism.  His  figures  often  have 
great  charm,  but  they  are  stiff,  and,  like  the  sculptors  of  his  time, 
when  he  seeks  to  show  one  part  of  a  figure  in  profile  and  another 
part  in  full  face,  he  is  unsuccessful  in  rendering  the  transition 
between  the  different  points  of  view.  This  is  easily  observed  in 
the  representation  of  the  bacchante  (Fig.  390).  The  absence,  too, 
of  line-drawing  within  the  figures  to  indicate  muscular  detail  is  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  practice  of  later  vase-painters.  Epictetus 
worked  with  various  potters,  Nicosthenes  and  Pamphaeus  among 
others,  and  the  vase  here  chosen  (Fig.  390)  to  illustrate  his  manner 
was  made  by  Python.  It  is  a  work  of  somewhat  more  elaborate 
composition  than  is  usual  with  Epictetus,  and  is  very  possibly  one 
of  his  later  vases,  painted  at  a  time  when  the  influence  of  his 
younger  contemporaries  was  making  itself  felt.  The  picture  on 
the  interior  of  the  cup  shows  two  figures — one  of  a  youth  playing 
on  the  double  flute,  the  other  of  a  dancing  bacchante  playing  the 
castanets — whereas  a  single  figure  is  the  rule  with  Epictetus.  The 
scenes  on  the  outside  are  not  related  to  one  another,  the  one 


VASES 


49  * 


representing  a  banquet,  the  other  the  favorite  legend  of  Heracles 
and  the  Egyptian  king  Busiris.  The  hero  turns  upon  the  servant? 
who,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  king  towards  strangers, 
are  about  to  sacrifice  him  upon  the  altar.  In  these  groups  Epic- 
tetus  has  introduced  more  figures  than  is  his  wont,  and  in  the 


FlG.  390.  — Cylix,  by  Epictetus.    British  Museum.    Diam,  0.319  m.    (Furt. 
and  Reich.,  II,  PI.  73.) 

symposium  scene  he  has  attempted  the  problem  of  delineating 
a  reclining  figure  as  seen  from  behind.  This  is  an  advance  on 
his  usually  simple  manner.  Nevertheless,  the  drawings  are  quite 
characteristic — archaic  in  style,  very  delicate  and  precise  in  exe- 
cution, but  entirely  lacking  in  the  skilful  and  balanced  grouping 
of  figures  that  is  found  in  the  work  of  the  later  masters  of  the 
"severe  style." 


19  2 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


In  this  later  group  of  painters  the  leading  names  are  Euphronius, 
Euthymides,  Duris,  Hieron,  and  Brygus.     Other  masters  of  this 

time,  however,  have  left  a  few  vases  of  the  highest  ex- 
Euphronius  .... 

cellence,  and  certain  of  the  unsigned  vases  hold  rank 

beside  the  works  of  men  whose  names  are  known.  The  single  vase, 
for  example,  of  Sosias  (eVou^j-ev)  in  Berlin,  representing  Achilles 
binding  up  a  wound  of  Patroclus  (Antike  Denkm'dler,  I,  Pis.  9  and 
10),  is  hardly  surpassed  by  any  works  of  this  period.  Among  these 

masters  of  the  later 
"severe"  period,  Eu- 
phronius perhaps  ranks 
first  in  importance, 
not  so  much  by  reason 
of  the  absolute  supe- 
riority of  his  work,  fine 
as  this  is,  as  from  the 
fact  that  the  series  of 
vases  which  bear  his 
name  affords  singularly 
good  illustration  of  the 
general  progress  of 
contemporary  vase- 
painting.  His  signed 
vases  are  ten  in  num- 
ber, and  with  the  ex- 


FlG.  391.  —  From  a  crater  by  Euphronius.    Louvre. 
{Vases  antiques  du  Louvre  (Album), PI.  100.) 


ception  of  two,  a  psycter  and  a  crater,  they  are  all  cylixes. 
Three  are  signed  lypa^ev  and  the  rest  l-n-oLrja-ev, —  a  fact  which 
suggests  certain  interesting  inferences  with  regard  to  the  master's 
work.  The  vases  signed  lypai//ei',  which  we  may  thus  fairly  assume 
to  be  from  Euphronius's  own  hand,  are  more  archaic  in  style  than 
the  others,  and  they  bear  the  KaAos-name  Leagrus.  The  others 
show  much  greater  freedom  from  archaic  tradition,  and  illustrate 
very  clearly  the  advance  in  the  vase-painter's  art  which  was  taking 
place  in  Athens.  These  latter  vases,  and  probably  certain  other 
unsigned  ones  which  are  published  in  Hartwig's  Meisterschalen,  are 


VASES  493 

from  the  workshop  of  Euphronius,  but  we  cannot  assume  that  he 
himself  painted  them.  It  would  thus  seem  likely  that  Euphronius 
himself  stood  near  to  the  archaic  period  in  his  own  work,  but  that 
the  unknown  painter  or  painters  who  in  later  years  worked  in  his 
shop  felt  the  full  influence  of  the  contemporary  advance  in  their 
art.  Figure  391  shows  the  heads  of  Heracles  and  Antaeus  from  the 


FlG.  392.  —  Cylix,  by  Euphronius.    British  Museum.    Diam.  0.334  m.    (Furt.  and 
Reich.,  I,  p.  23.) 


crater  in  the  Louvre  signed  lypai/'ev.  The  vase  as  a  whole  strongly 
recalls  black-figured  work,  and  its  limitations  in  portraying  the 
human  form  are,  to  some  extent,  those  which  are  characteristic  of 
the  Epictetan  period.  The  resemblance  of  the  head  of  Heracles 
to  that  of  the  soldier  on  the  stele  of  Aristion  (p.  207)  is  marked. 
The  same  affinity  to  earlier  work  may  be  seen,  also,  in  the  fine 
cylix  at  Munich  (ey/aai^cv),  upon  which  is  represented  the  myth 


494  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  Heracles  and  Geryon  (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  22),  but  this  vase 
exhibits  greater  skill  in  the  arrangement  of  figures.  Figure  392 
(cTTouyo-ev)  betrays  a  distinct  advance  both  in  the  power  to  express 
emotion  and  in  general  composition.  The  interior,  framed  by  a 
meander  pattern,  shows  the  figures  of  a  man  and  woman  in 
conversation,  and  the  exterior  has  on  one  side  the  episode  of 
Heracles  and  the  boar,  with  Eurystheus,  and  on  the  other  a  scene 
of  uncertain  purport,  in  which  Hermes  figures.  Though  in  various 
ways  reflecting  archaic  tradition,  this  vase  is  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  the  "severe  style"  at  a  period  of  high  development. 
The  precision  and  elegance  of  the  work  on  it,  whether  it  be  ac- 
tually by  Euphronius  or  not,  are  truly  remarkable. 

The  vase-painter  Euthymides,1  who  appears  to  have  been  a 
contemporary  of  Euphronius  and  a  rival  also,  to  judge  from  one 

of  his  amphorae  (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PL  14),  which 
Euthymides    , 

bears  the  inscription  "  Euphronius  never  made  the 

like,  "  affords  much  instructive  material  for  comparison  with  the 
work  of  the  latter  master.  He  avoids  the  cylix  form,  and  his 
paintings,  though  less  picturesque  and  interesting  than  those  of 
Euphronius  and  his  helpers,  have  a  certain  largeness  of  style  which 
is  foreign  to  his  rival.  He  has  been  regarded,  very  likely  correctly, 
as  the  special  follower  of  Andocides.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
figures  of  Euthymides  in  some  cases  have  mythological  names 
attached  to  them,  they  lack  all  legendary  spirit,  and  his  tendency 
is  distinctly  toward  the  representation  of  scenes  from  everyday  life. 
The  other  leading  masters  of  the  "severe  style"  who  have  been 
mentioned  above  —  Duris,  Hieron,  and  Brygus  —  are  much  nearer 

the  Euphronian  school,  but  each  has  his  distinct  char- 
Duns  , 

actenstics.  Duns,  though  on  the  whole  a  less  inter- 
esting master  than  either  Euphronius  or  Brygus,  has  a  unique 
importance  because  of  the  large  number  of  his  signed  vases,  twenty- 
eight  in  all,  of  which  all  but  two  are  cylixes.  He  uses  lypai/'ev,  ex- 
cept in  one  instance,  so  that  the  series  affords  an  unusual  opportunity 
for  the  study  of  an  individual's  actual  work.  Moreover,  his  manner 
1  Monograph  by  J.  C.  Hoppin,  Munich,  1896. 


VASES  495 

is  pretty  strongly  marked,  and  a  good  many  unsigned  vases  may 
thus,  with  more  or  less  probability,  be  connected  with  his  style. 
This  is  characterized  by  exactness  and  care,  but  also  in  general  by 
a  kind  of  dry  stiffness  that  is  not  found  in  the  work  of  Euphronius 
or  Brygus.  His  figures  are  tall  and  slim  with  rather  small  heads, 
and  in  the  symmetrically  arranged  groups  there  is  a  marked 
tendency  to  let  the  individual  figures  appear  separately  against 
the  background.  Duris,  however,  shows  pretty  distinctly  an  earlier 
and  a  later  manner,  which  may  be  readily  observed  if  one  compares 
the  fine  archaic  cylix  in  the  Louvre,1  representing  Homeric  con- 
flicts and  Eos  carrying  the  body  of  Mernnon,  with  the  Vienna 
cylix  shown  in  Figure  393.  The  latter  vase,  upon  the  outside  of 
which  is  represented  the  dispute  of  Ajax  and  Odysseus  about 
the  arms  of  Achilles  and  the  vote  of  the  heroes  on  the  question 
at  issue,  and  on  the  inside  the  gift  of  the  arms  to  Neoptolemus, 
exhibits  not  more  vigor  certainly  than  the  Memnon  vase,  but  a 
considerably  greater  power  of  facile  execution.  Occasionally,  as 
on  the  splendid  psycter  in  the  British  Museum  (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I, 
PI.  48),  Duris  seems  for  the  moment  to  cast  aside  his  dry  manner 
and  to  vie  with  the  vigorous  vivacity  of  Brygus,  and  in  one  cylix 
at  Vienna  (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  53)  he  appears  to  have 
imitated  the  style  of  Euphronius.  To  compare  this  vase  with 
the  one  shown  in  Figure  393,  found  with  it  and  by  the  same 
potter,  Python,  is  very  instructive.  A  further  marked  charac- 
teristic of  Duris  is  his  fondness  for  scenes  of  everyday  life,  and 
we  owe  to  his  hand  an  interesting  and  often  published  cylix  in 
Berlin,  representing  instruction  in  a  schoolroom.2 

In  contrast  to  Duris,  Hieron3  is  a   master  whose    signature, 
almost  always  incised  on  the   handle  of  the  vase,  is  invariably 
Only  one  of  his  vases  (Furt.  and  Reich.,  II, 


PI.  85),  a  fine  scyphus  decorated  with  scenes  from  the 

story  of  Helen,  bears  the  painter's  name,  that  of  Macron.    Whether 

1  Pettier,  Douris,  Figs.  8,  9,  IO.  2  Reinach,  Repertoire,  I,  p.  196. 

8  In  addition  to  the  general  works  in  the  Bibliography,  cp.  Pollak,  Zwei 
Vasen  aus  der  Werkstatt  Hierons,  Leipzig,  1900. 


496  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


FIG.  393.  — Cylix,  by  Duris.    Vienna.    Diam.  0.326  m.    (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI. 54.) 


VASES  497 

Macron  painted  the  other  vases  signed  by  Hieron  is  a  matter  of 
dispute,  but  it  is  at  least  probable  that  his  hand  may  be  traced  in 
some  of  them.  The  work  on  Hieron's  vases  shows  considerable 
individuality  in  spite  of  a  not  infrequent  repetition  of  types.  A 
good  many  of  his  scenes  are  amatory  in  character,  but  vigorous  and 
forceful  conceptions  are  not  wanting.  Besides  the  scyphus  referred 
to  above,  a  cotyle  in  the  British  Museum,  showing  the  sending  forth 
of  Triptolemus  by  the  Eleusinian  Divinities,  and  a  cylix  in  Berlin, 
upon  which  the  "  Judgment  of  Paris  "  is  painted,  are  worthy  of 
especial  attention.  They  are  examples  of  the  work  of  Hieron's 
school  at  its  best,  and  show  clearly  its  most  marked  technical 
characteristic  —  the  skilful  drawing  of  rich  and  elaborate  drapery. 
On  the  scyphus  signed  by  Macron,  for  instance,  the  painter  has 
almost  completely  covered  the  surface  of  the  vase  with  the  dra- 
pery of  his  figures,  reducing  the  black  background  to  a  minimum, 
and  distinguishing  the  individual  figures  and  their  intermingling 
draperies  by  exceedingly  clever  line  work. 

With  the  potter  Brygus *  we  reach  the  final  stage  in  the  "  severe 
style  "  of  red-figured  vases.  The  eight  cylixes  bearing  his  name  he 
signs  on  the  handle  or  foot  of  the  vase  with  cTrouycrei/, 
and  it  must  thus  remain  uncertain  whether  he  himself 
was  actually  the  painter.  The  vases,  however,  appear  to  be  painted 
by  the  same  person,  whoever  he  was.  Brygus  was  working  appar- 
ently before  480  B.C.,  since  a  fragment  of  one  of  his  vases  was  found 
in  the  pre-Persian  strata  of  the  Acropolis,  but  the  general  style  of 
the  painting  indicates  that  his  activity  extends  to  about  460  B.C. 
The  vases  of  Brygus,  both  in  their  general  character  and  in  the  ren- 
dering of  certain  details,  appear  to  be  later  than  the  work  of  the  other 
masters  of  the  "  severe  style."  The  traces  of  archaism  are  less 
marked,  the  dramatic  power  is  greater,  and  the  symmetrical  ar- 
rangement of  the  figures  more  subtly  carried  out;  facial  expres- 
sion is  more  varied,  and  the  drawing  of  the  eye  in  profile,  though 
not  yet  as  it  should  be,  is  much  more  nearly  correct.  Figure  394. 

1  Cp.  O.  S.  Tonks,  "  Brygos,"  Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  1904. 

GREEK  ARCH.  —  32 


498  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

a  representation  of  the  "  Sack  of  Ilium,"  in  which  the  motives  are 
no  doubt  somewhat  traditional  (cp.  the  so-called  "  Vivenzio  vase," 
Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  34)  or  possibly  even  adapted,  as  has  been 


FlG.  394.  —  Cylix,  by  Brygus.   Louvre.   Diam.  0.37  m.   (Furt. and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  25.) 

suggested,  from  some  larger  painting,  is  an  excellent  specimen  of 
Brygus's  work,  though  it  is  perhaps  surpassed  by  some  others  in 
the  decorative  effect  of  the  skilful  grouping  of  figures.  One  side 
of  the  exterior  shows  Neoptolemus  hurling  the  body  of  Astyanax 


VASES  499 

against  the  old  king  Priam,  who  has  taken  refuge  at  an  altar ;  on 
the  other  side  is  a  scene  in  the  sack  of  the  city,  in  which  Androm- 
ache attacks  a  conquering  Greek  warrior  Orsimes.1  The  scene 
on  the  interior  represents  a  maiden  (Briseis)  pouring  wine  into  a 
cup  held  by  an  old  man  (Phoenix?).  The  life  and  vigor  dis- 
played in  these  drawings  is  thoroughly  characteristfc  of  Brygus's 
vases  and  also  of  a  good  number  of  unsigned  ones  which  reflect 
his  manner.  In  matters  of  detail,  too,  the  vase  shows  certain 
peculiarities  which  are  typical  of  his  work  and  which  point  to  the 
enlarged  use  of  gilding  and  color  that  came  into  vogue  later  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C.  Gilding  is  here  found  on  the  helmet  of  the 
Greek  warrior,  on  the  tripod,  which  is  itself  done  in  light  color, 
and  elsewhere  for  small  ornaments ;  red,  also,  is  used  in  rendering 
some  details ;  and  the  hair  and  beards  of  the  old  men  are  done 
with  a  creamy  white ;  hair  on  the  bodies  of  the  men  is  freely 
indicated,  and  there  is  occasionally  an  attempt  to  show  curving 
surfaces  by  shading ;  some  of  the  garments,  too,  are  ornamented 
with  dots  —  a  favorite  practice  with  Brygus. 

This  greater  elaborateness,  then,  as  well  as  the  increased  free- 
dom in  draughtsmanship,  is  rightly  held  to  indicate  the  passing  of 
the  "  severe  style"  into  the  so-called  "fine  style," —  The  fine 
a  change  which  in  ceramic  art  is  contemporary  with  stYle 
the  work  of  the  great  master  Polygnotus,  whose  career,  beginning 
probably  shortly  after  the  close  of  the  Persian  War,  extended 
somewhat  beyond  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  vases  almost  certainly  reflect  his  style  and 
that  of  other  artists  who  were  no  doubt  influenced  by  him/ 
and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  about  450  B.C.  vase-painting  under- 
goes just  about  the  kind  of  change  which  would  be  expected, 
if  it  had  felt  the  stimulus  of  a  greater  art  showing  increased 
freedom  in  drawing  and  a  stronger  tendency  than  had  ap- 
parently yet  prevailed  to  break  away  from  traditional  artistic 

1  The  difficulties  of  interpretation  are  well  discussed  by  Pettier,  Catalogue^ 
pp.  990  ff. 

2  Cp.  pp.  532  f.  for  a  further  mention  of  these  vases. 


500  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

schemes.  Figure  395  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  "  fine  style," 
and  if  it  is  compared  with  any  work  of  the  "  severe  "  school,  the 
change  which  has  taken  place  in  vase-painting  is  evident  at  a 
glance.  Such  a  change  can  be  adequately  explained  only  by 
the  supposition  that  the  vase-painters  have  become  familiar  with 
the  works  of  the  greater  artists.  The  large  crater  in  Ruvo  upon 


FIG.  395.  —  From  a  crater  in  Naples.     (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  37.) 

which  the  death  of  the  giant  Tabs  at  the  hands  of  Medea  is 
painted  is  another  important  example  of  this  large  and  free  style.1 
It  seems  likely,  too,  that  the  great  sculptors  of  the  day,  as  well  as 
the  painters,  influenced  the  makers  of  vases.  Thus  Figure  396 
shows  groups  of  fighting  Centaurs  and  Lapiths,  which  are  very 
like  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon,  and  there  are  groups  of  horse- 
men on  vases  that  afford  striking  parallels  to  those  of  the  frieze.2 

1  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  Pis.  38-39.     Cp.  also  a  fine  Attic  amphora  from 
Melos,  ibid.,  II,  Pis.  96-97. 

2  Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  58,  and  P.  Gardner,  Catalogue  of  Vases  in  the 
Ashmolean  Museum,  PI.  13. 


VASES  501 

This  is  what  might  be  expected,  and  it  is  indeed  possible  to  see 
resemblances  to  sculpture  throughout  the  course  of  the  develop- 
ment of  vase-painting,  only  these  resemblances  are  perhaps  es- 
pecially striking  in  the  "  fine  style "  and  in  certain  later  Attic 
vases  which  have  been  found  at  Kertch  in  the  Crimea. 

In  matters  of  detail  almost  any  good  vase  of  this  time  shows  a 
marked  advance  in  the  mastery  of  drawing.  The  figures  have  lost 
their  former  hardness ;  the  eye  in  profile  is  properly  rendered  ;  the 
proportions  of  the  face  and  of  the  figure  are  more  natural,  and  the 
painters  no  longer  hesitate  to  represent  figures  in  three  quarters 
or  in  full  face.  The  hair  and  beard  are  painted  in  greater  mass, 
and  there  is  in  the  finest  examples  the  nobility  of  countenance  so 
familiar  in  Attic  sculpture.  Occasionally,  als(  ,  some  use  of  shading 
to  indicate  the  roundness  of  limbs  is  found,  as  on  the  Talos  vase. 

But  the  vase-painters  of  this  period,  although  they  gained  the 
feeling  for  a  larger  treatment  of  their  subjects,  did  not,  for  a  time 
at  least,  lose  the  power  to  paint  small  vases  with  extraordinary 
delicacy.  At  no  period  is  the  wonderful  skill  in  the  use  of  the 
relief-line  more  admirable.1  The  lecythus  and  pyxis  are  common 
forms  used  for  this  delicate  technique,  and  the  cylix  no  longer 
holds  its  former  prominent  position. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  with  the  "fine  style"  the  signatures 
on  vases  grow  rarer,  for  what  reason  is  not  entirely  clear.  Such 
signatures  during  the  period  of  active  export  very  likely  served 
the  purpose  of  a  trade-mark,  and  Athenian  trade  fell  off  through 
war  from  430  B.C.  on  (cp.  Pottier,  Catalogue,  pp.  1076  ff.).  This 
fact,  however,  does  not  adequately  explain  why  the  signatures  ap- 
parently begin  to  decrease  before  this  date.  But  whatever  the 
cause,  the  result  is  that  the  names  of  barely  a  dozen  vase-painters 
of  this  style  are  known,  and  they  are  represented  by  very  few  vases. 

Such  vases  as  the  cylixes  of  Aristophanes  in  Boston  (Fig.  396) 
and  Berlin  (published  by  Furt.  and  Reich.,  Ill,  Pis.  127-129),  or  that 

1  Good  examples  of  this  delicate  vase-painting  may  be  seen  on  the  vases 
published,  pp.  87  and  88  of  the  "  Handbook  "  of  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Boston.  But  no  reproduction  of  such  fine  work  can  be  satisfactory. 


502 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


of  Aeson  in  Madrid  (Antike  Denkmaler,  II,  PL  i)  are  good 
examples  of  the  earlier  stages  of  the  "  fine  style,"  and  two  small 
cups  signed  by  Xenotimus  (Antike  Denkmaler,  I,  PI.  59) 
show  it  in  its  somewhat  freer  development.  Among  the  signed 
vases  which  are  larger,  those  by  Hermonax  (Arch.  Zeitung,  1878, 
PI.  12  and  Monumenti,  VIII,  PI.  45)  are  exceedingly  good  illus- 


FlG.  396.  —  Cylix,  by  Aristophanes.    Boston.    Diam.  0.34801.    (Photograph.) 

trations  of  the  transition  from  the  "  severe  style."  Probably  a  little 
later  in  date  are  three  vases  signed  by  a  vase-painter  named 
Polygnotus  (Monumenti  antichi,  IX,  Pis.  1-3).  But  in  signed  vases 
the  "  fine  style  "  reaches  its  culmination  in  the  splendid  hydria 
(Fig.  397)  by  Midias1  (toward  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.). 

1  Furt.  and  Reich.,  PI.  8.  For  unsigned  vases  and  remarks  on  the  style  of 
Midias,  see  Pis.  20,  30,  59,  78,  with  text.  Cp.  Meidias  et  le  style  fie  uri  dans  la 
(eramiqut  attique,  par  Georges  Nicole,  Geneva,  1908. 


VASES  503 

On  the  shoulder  of  the  vase  in  front  is  represented  the  Rape  of  the 
Daughters  of  Leucippus,  a  subject  chosen  by  the  painter  Polyg- 
notus  for  a  fresco  in  the  Anaceum,  and  on  an  encircling  band 
below  Heracles  in  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides  and  a  group  of 
Attic  heroes.  The  scenes  are  portrayed  in  a  vivacious  and  inter- 


FlG.  397.  —  From  a  Hydria,  by  Midias.  British  Museum.   (Furt.  and  Reich.,  I,  PI.  8.) 

esting  way,  and  the  general  decorative  effect  is  very  fine.  This 
vase  by  Midias,  and  other  unsigned  vases  of  the  same  style,  show 
great  ease  and  freedom  of  workmanship  and  the  more  advanced 
skill  in  composition  which  is  associated  with  the  influence  of  Polyg- 
notus,  but,  in  spite  of  their  beauty,  the  drawing  lacks  the  earlier 
firmness  and  simplicity  of  line,  and  its  florid  character  betokens  the 
approaching  decadence.  Gilding  and  the  free  use  of  white  become 


504  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

more  common,  and  the  figures  are  occasionally  moulded  and  ap- 
plied to  the  surface  of  the  vase.  The  work  of  the  painters,  though 
done  with  great  facility,  is  often  careless,  so  that,  speaking  gen- 
erally, it  may  be  said  that  from  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  Attic  vase-painting  as  a  form  of  art  loses  its  importance.  It 
does  not,  however,  disappear,  for  Attic  vases  which  must  be  dated 
in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  have  been  found  in  many  different  re- 
gions, and  a  few  of  these  are  so  fine  as  to  make  it  certain  that  the 
general  decline  was  neither  sudden  nor  universal. 

The  most  noteworthy  examples  belonging  to  this  period  con- 
stitute a  series  generally  called  Kertch  vases,  from  the  place  at 
which  a  large  number  of  them  were  found  —  the 
necropolis  of  Panticapaeum  near  Kertch  in  the  Cri- 
mea.1 These  vases  are  often  dated  at  the  close  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  but  the  view  of  Furtwangler,  that  they  belong  in 
the  fourth  century,  some  of  them  even  in  the  latter  part  of 
it,  is  almost  certainly  correct.2  The  drawing  of  the  figures  in 
the  better  examples  shows  in  many  ways  a  marked  difference 
from  that  of  the  period  of  Midias,  when  there  is  still  a  strong 
tendency  to  emphasize  the  outline  of  the  figure  as  it  appears 
against  the  background.  On  the  Kertch  vases  the  figures  are 
often  shown  against  one  another  in  close  groups,  and  there  is  little 
effort  to  get  any  outline  effect  of  either  body  or  limbs.  The  use 
of  gilding  and  white  is  very  characteristic.3  Very  marked,  too, 
is  the  strong  resemblance  to  the  figures  of  fourth-century  sculp- 
ture and  terracottas,  and  the  drawing  is  strikingly  like  that  on 
bronze  mirrors  of  the  time.  It  has  been  suggested  (Furt.  and 
Reich.,  II,  p.  43)  that  this  drawing  shows  the  influence  of  the 

1  Many  are  published  in  the  Comptes  rendus  de  la    Commission   imperiale 
archeologique  de  "aint  Petersbourg,  and  in  the  Antiquiles  du  Bosphore  cim- 
merien. 

2  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  Pis.  40,  68,  69,  70,  79,  87,  and  text,  especially  II, 
pp.  42  ff. 

8  The  extensive  use  of  white  on  the  Kertch  vases  seems  to  have  a  special 
development  on  a  rare  class  of  vases  which  have  wholly  white  figures  on  a 
black  ground.  See  Furt.  and  Reich.,  PL  100. 


VASES 


5°5 


Sicyonian  school  of  painting  in 
the  fourth  century  B.C.,  which 
laid  especial  emphasis  on 
draughtsmanship.  The  forms 
of  the  Kertch  vases  have  con- 
siderable variety,  the  hydria 
and  pdice  being  perhaps  the 
most  noteworthy,  though  one 
of  the  finest  examples  is  a  cov- 
ered, stemless  cylix  (Furt.  and 
Reich.,  PI.  68).  The  key  thus, 
too,  with  outcurving  body,  a 
shape  frequent  among  late  At- 
tic vases,  is  also  common.  Fig- 
ures 398  and  399  show  a 
characteristic  hydria  with  the 
rich  and  bold  development  of 
palmette  design  which  is  a 
distinctive  mark  of  the  Kertch 


FIG.  398.  —  Hydria  from  Kertch.  St. 
Petersburg,  h.  0.33  m.  (Furt.  and 
Reich.,  PI.  79.) 


vases.    The  scene  depicted  probably  represents  Paris  and  Helen, 


FIG.  399.  —  From  the  vase  shown  in  Fig.  398. 


506  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

but  as  this  class  of  vases  has  no  inscriptions,  there  is  often  doubt 
about  the  interpretation  of  the  figures.  With  the  Kertch  series, 
Attic  red-figured  vase-painting  loses  its  distinctive  importance. 

Vases  with  White  Background 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  tendency  to  use  a  white  or 
light-colored  slip  as  a  background  appears  at  quite  an  early  date 
among  the  Greek  potters.  The  technique  of  painted  marble 
stelae  or  of  tablets  like  that  from  the  Acropolis  (p.  526)  may  very 
well  have  helped  to  its  adoption  among  the  Attic  vase-painters, 
who  had  by  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  become  familiar 
with  the  use  of  such  a  background  for  their  paintings.  The  ala- 
bastrum,  the  cylix,  the  pyxis,  and,  above  all,  the  lecythus  are  the 
forms  most  used  in  this  technique,  although  it  was  not  wholly  con- 
fined to  these,  and  the  progress  in  skilful  drawing  is  along  the 
same  lines  as  that  of  the  red-figured  vases ;  that  is,  a  "  severe  " 
style  is  followed  by  a  "  fine "  style,  and  this  is  succeeded  by 
careless  work  and  consequent  deterioration. 

The  earlier  stages  in  the  use  of  the  white  background  are  well 
illustrated  by  the  jugs  of  Nicosthenes  (p.  483)  and  by  a  fine 
oenochoe  in  the  British  Museum  (Jour.  Hell.  Sfud.,  Vol.  I,  PI.  II). 
Thjsse  and  other  similar  vases  are  really  black-figured,  and  occa- 
sionally the  painters  use  incised  lines.  Some  specimens,  indeed, 
must  be  dated  well  on  in  the  red-figured  period,  but  their  tech- 
nique belongs  to  the  earlier  time.1  As  the  skill  of  the  vase-painters 
in  line  drawing  increases,  the  use  of  a  simple  outline  in  black-glaze 
varnish  becomes  frequent,  though  it  is  often  used  for  a  portion 
only  of  the  picture.  An  excellent  example  of  the  early  period 
in  this  technique  is  an  alabastrum  now  in  the  British  Museum 
(No.  B  668)  which  is  signed  by  Pasiades  (Jour.  Hell.  Stud., 
VIII,  PI.  LXXXIII).  Two  female  figures  (maenads)  with  a  crane 
between  them  are  depicted  on  the  vase.  The  crane  is  in  solid 
black  ;  the  women  are  in  black  outline  with  black  hair.  A  distinc- 
1  For  a  series  of  these  vases,  cp.  Brit.  Mus.  Catal.,  II,  pp.  283  ff. 


VASES  507 

tive  feature  is  the  yellowish  brown  glaze  with  which  the  chitons 
of  the  women  are  painted,  and  the  same  glaze  is  used  for  tufts 
of  feathers  on  the  head  and  breast  of  the  crane.  The  background 
is  of  a  rich  cream  tint.  The  character  of  the  drawing  shows  that 
the  vase  belongs  to  the  school  of  Epictetus.1 

In  the  gradual  progress  of  this  style  of  painting  into  the  Eu- 
phronian  period,  besides  the  greater  skill  in  drawing  which  is 
shown,  some  technical  changes  are  noteworthy.  The  black-glaze 
lines  are  thinned  out  and  become  of  a  brownish  tint.  Then  toward 
the  period  of  the  "  fine  "  style,  the  glaze  lines  take  on  a  golden 
hue,  and  later  the  use  of  lustrous  pigment  is  abandoned  and  the 
lines  are  painted  in  dull  colors  with  great  variety  of  tint,  red  being 
quite  common.  Many  specimens,  of  course,  show  the  use  of  both 
the  glaze  and  the  dull  colors.  From  the  beginning  there  is  a 
tendency  toward  polychromy,2  and  this  gradually  increases.  At 
first  black,  yellow,  purple,  red  in  various  tones,  and  white,  when 
the  background  has  a  creamy  tint,  are  common.  The  darker 
colors  appear  on  the  garments  of  the  figures  or  on  accessory 
objects.  The  use  of  gilding,  too,  is  not  uncommon.  Later  blue 
and  green  are  employed,  and  the  general  use  of  color  is  extended, 
so  that  the  result  is  a  complete  colored  drawing,  and  not  a  draw- 
ing in  line.  In  this  gradual  development  of  technique  it  is  likely 
that  the  vases  reflect  the  work  of  the  great  fresco-painters,  and 
they  are  thus  of  high  importance  in  their  bearing  upon  major  art. 

Figure  400,  the  top  of  a  covered  cylix  in  Boston,  is  an  admirable 
example  of  painting  on  a  white  ground  in  the  early  period  of  the 
"  fine  style  "  when  there  are  still  many  reminders  of  Cylixes  and 
"  severe  "  drawing.  Apollo  is  shown  in  conversation  pyxides 
with  a  muse,  whose  lyre  rests  on  the  ground  beside  her.  The  lines, 
diawn  in  brown  glaze,  are  of  great  delicacy;  the  flesh  is  the  white 

1  An  alabastrum  in  the  Museum  at   Boston   (Museum  Report  for  1900, 
p.  73)  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  British  Museum  specimen. 

2  A  probably  unique  specimen  of  a  sixth  century  B.C.  polychrome  pinax 
(Ionic  ?)  has  been  found  at  Thera.    See  Thera  (the  publication  of  the  exca- 
vations), Vol.  II,  PI.  2. 


5o8  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

of  the  background ;  the  mantle  of  Apollo  is  purplish  red  and  the 
chiton  of  the  muse  a  light  brown.  There  are  no  Greek  vases  which 
surpass  these  white-ground  cylixes  in  pure  beauty  and  refined  deli- 
cacy. They  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  but  there  are  enough 
to  illustrate  the  work  in  this  technique  through  the  "  severe  "  and 
"  fine  "  styles.1  Those  signed  by  the  potter  Sotades  (see  note) 


FlG.  400. —  Covered  Cylix.    Boston.     Diatn.  0.166  m.     (Photograph.) 

1  Reference  is  here  made  to  some  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  white-ground 
cylixes.  (i)  "  Severe  style,"  somewhat  archaic  in  drawing:  White  Athenian 
Vases  in  British  Museum,  Pis.  XIX  (Anesidora  essentially  equivalent  to  Pan- 
dora) and  XV  (Aphrodite  riding  on  a  swan) ;  Furt.  and  Reich.,  Pis.  65  (statu- 
esque figure  of  Hera)  and  49  (Maenad,  in  manner  of  Brygus) ;  Hartwig, 
Meisterschalen,  PL,  L  (jBrit.  Mus.  Catal.,  Ill,  D,i,  fragmentary),  to  be  supple- 
mented by  Naukratis,  I,  p.  52,  also  LI  (subject  uncertain,  with  signature, 
tiroir)ffev,  of  Euphronius,  fragmentary) ;  Jour.  Hell.  Stud ,  IX,  PL  VI  (Orpheus 
and  Thracian  women,  fragmentary) ;  Monument!,  X,  PL  373  (drinking  and 
cottabus  scene).  On  the  last  cylix  the  white-ground  technique  is  on  the 
outside  of  the  vase.  (2)  "  Fine  Style  " :  White  Athenian  Vases,  Pis.  XVI 


VASES  509 

are  remarkable  for  the  extreme  delicacy  of  the  workmanship  upon 
them  and  for  the  peculiar  form  of  the  handles,  which  are  like  the 
"  wishbone "  of  a  fowl.  In  recent  years  a  good  many  speci- 
mens of  pyxides  with  white-ground  decoration  have  appeared. 
The  scenes  painted  upon  them  are  often  of  a  domestic  character, 
as  is  the  case  on  the  similar  vases  of  the  time  in  the  red-fig- 
ured technique.  Mythological  subjects  are,  however,  sometimes 
chosen.1 

Among  the  vases  which  show  the  white-ground  technique,  the 
lecythi  have  a  special  importance  and  form  a  group  by  themselves. 

Their  number  is  very  great,  and  the  fact  that  their  devel- 

r-  r  i  Lecythi 

opment  extends  entirely  through  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

and  on  into  the  fourth  makes  them  unusually  valuable  as  illustra- 
tions of  technical  progress  and  change.  Their  close  connection, 
too,  with  funeral  rites  lends  them  a  peculiar  interest  apart  from 
artistic  considerations,  for  the  scenes  represented  on  many  of  them 
throw  much  light  upon  Athenian  customs  and  beliefs  with  reference 
to  the  dead.  Thus  they  are  to  be  closely  associated  with  the  sepul- 
chral monuments.  The  lecythi  have  been  found  elsewhere  than  in 
Attica,  and  it  may  be  that  a  few  of  them  are  not  of  Athenian  manu- 
facture, but  most  of  them  certainly  are,  and  it  is  quite  possible 

(Myth  of  Glaucus,  son  of  Minos),  XVII  (girl  picking  an  apple),  by  Sotades, 
XVIII  B  (death  of  Archemorus),  probably  by  Sotades;  Monuments  Plot,  II, 
Pis.  V  and  VI  (woman  playing  on  a  lyre  in  both),  in  style  of  the  vases  by 
Sotades;  Van  Brantighem  Sale  Catalogue  No.  167  (figure  of  a  woman)  by 
Hegesiboulus,  much  like  the  work  of  Sotades.  For  an  extended  list  of  these 
white-ground  cylixes,  see  Hartwig,  Meisterschalen,  pp.  499  ff.,  and  Monuments 
Plot,  II,  p.  42,  note  2.  Nos.  159-167  in  the  Van  Brantighem  Sale  Catalogue 
are  useful,  though  not  very  perfect  illustrations  of  the  series  of  vases  by 
Sotades  and  of  one  or  two  others  in  his  manner. 

1  Good  examples  of  such  pyxides  are  White  Athenian  Vases,  PI.  XX;  Brit. 
Mus.  Catal.,  Ill,  PI.  XXII.  There  is  a  fine  specimen  in  Boston,  Museum 
Report,  1898,  pp.  74  ff.,  and  another,  upon  which  the  "  Judgment  of  Paris  "  is 
represented,  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York.  For  an  example  of 
an  oenochoe  with  white-ground  technique,  see  White  Athenian  Vases,  XXI  B, 
and  for  a  crater  (calyx  form),  Museum  etruscum  Gregorianum,  II,  PI.  XXVI  = 
Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  ceramique  grecque,  Fig.  84. 


5io  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

that  those  found  elsewhere  were  imported  from  Athens.  The 
technical  development  of  the  vases  follows  generally  the  course 
described  above  for  all  white-ground  vases,  but  the  lecythi  are  so 
numerous  and  exhibit  so  much  variety  in  their  decoration  and  in 
drawing  that  they  have  been  classified  in  various  groups  which, 
besides  rendering  study  easier,  often  have  an  important  bearing 
on  chronological  sequence.1  This  sequence,  however,  is  most 
surely  and  continuously  indicated  by  the  style  of  drawing,  which 
illustrates  clearly  the  "severe"  and  "fine"  styles  through  the  early 
part  and  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  finally  becomes  so 
careless  as  quite  to  lose  its  attractiveness.  As  illustrations  of  the 
developed  polychromatic  painting  mentioned  above,  some  of  the 
lecythi  are  of  great  interest,  for  they  show  a  technique  which 
practically  abandons  outline  drawing  and  renders  the  figures  in 
solid  color  with  some  feeling  for  gradation  of  light  and  shade,* 
thus  in  all  likelihood  pointing  to  the  works  of  the  great  fresco- 
painters.  Such  vases  are  probably  to  be  dated  in  the  fourth 
century  B.C.  or  at  the  earliest  late  in  the  fifth  century. 

Figure  401  reproduces  a  vase  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the 
"  fine  style."  It  belongs  to  a  series  in  which  a  certain  stiffness 
in  drawing  is  found,  but  also  a  refinement  and  elegance  which  in 
great  measure  compensate  for  the  tendency  to  formality.  A 

1  R.C.  McMahon,  A.J.A.,  XI  (1907),  pp.  7  ff.,  gives  an  elaborate  classifica- 
tion covering  the  fifth  century  B.C.    Athenian  Lekylhoi,  with  outline  drawings 
in  glaze  varnish  on  a  white  ground,  by  Arthur  Fairbanks,  is  the  most  care- 
ful study  of  these  vases   that   has   yet   appeared,   for  the   period  which   it 
covers. 

2  Collignon,  Monuments  Piot,   XII,  pp.  29  ff.,  Pis.   3-5  ;  Winter,  Berl. 
Winckelm.  Progr.,  1895. 

Reference  to  a  few  published  examples  of  lecythi  is  here  given,  which  may 
serve  the  student  as  a  rough  summary  of  the  changes  in  drawing  which  take 
place  during  the  fifth  century  B.C:  Fairbanks,  op.  cit.,  Pis.  I-IV;  White  Ath. 
Vases  in  Brit.  Mus.,  Pis.  XIV,  XXII,  XXIII  A,  VIII;  Ephemeris  Archae- 
ologike,  1905,  PI.  i;  Jour.  Hell.  Stud.,  XVI,  Pis.  IV-VII;  White  Atk.  Vases, 
Pis.  II-V;  Jour.  Hell.  Studn  XIX,  Pis.  II,  III;  White  Ath.  Vases,  Pis.  XII, 
X,  XXVII. 


VASES 


511 


young  man  and  a  young  woman  are  shown  standing  on  either  side 
of  a  sepulchral  stele. 

The  subjects  of  the  pictures  on  lecythi  are  sometimes  mytho- 
logical, more  often  genre,  and  still  more  often  they  are  con- 
cerned with  death.  Moreover,  many  of  the  domestic  pictures 
resemble  the  scenes  on  the  Athenian  sepulchral  monuments, 
and  thus,  though  they  represent  merely 
the  incidents  of  family  life,  they  may 
frequently  be  associated  with  the  dead. 
Other  and  earlier  forms  of  vases,  like  the 
great  Dipylon  craters  and  amphorae  and 
the  pro  thesis-amphorae  of  the  black- 
figured  style,  were  associated  with  sepul- 
chral usage,  and  other  shapes  appear  in 
tombs  at  a  still  later  date  (cp.  White 
Ath.  Vases,  PI.  XIII),  but  by  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  the  lecythi  become 
preeminently  the  Athenian  sepulchral 
vases,  and  the  scenes  which  appear  upon 
them  have  to  do  with  funeral  rites.1  FIG.  401.  —  Lecythus.  Ath- 
These  scenes  appear  in  four  different  ens-  n-  °-34  m.  (A.J.A., 
types,  the  prothesis,  or  laying-out  of 

the  body,  the  laying  of  the  body  in  the  tomb  (depositio},  the 
journey  to  Hades,  in  which  Charon  with  his  boat  appears, 
and  the  cult  of  the  tomb.2  The  representation  of  the  prothesis 
occurs  on  black-figured  amphorae  of  the  type  referred  to 
above,  and  on  black-figured  terracotta  plaques,  and  a  form  of 
depositio  is  not  unknown  to  this  earlier  technique  (Monumenti, 
VIII,  PI.  IV),  but  this  scene  on  the  lecythi  is  commonly  idealized 

*  Cp.  Pettier,  Etude  sur  les  Iccythes  blancs  attiques  h  representation  fune- 
raires. 

2  For  these  types,  see  White  Ath.  Vases,  Pis.  VII  (prothesis) ;  IX,  XI  (laying 
of  body  in  tomb),  XII,  and  Antike  Denkmaler,  I,  PI.  23  (Charon) ;  White 
Ath.  Vases,  PI.  X,  and>wr.  Hell.  Stud.,  XIX,  PL  II  (cult  of  the  tomb).  The 
cult  scenes  are  very  frequent  indeed. 


512  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

by  the  introduction  of  winged  figures,  very  likely  Sleep  and  Death, 
who  bear  the  body.  The  scenes  in  which  Charon  appears  are 
peculiar  to  the  lecythi,  though  it  should  be  noted  that  Pausanias 
in  his  description  of  Polygnotus's  fresco  of  Odysseus  in  the  nether 
world  speaks  of  the  ferryman  and  his  boat  on  the  river  Acheron. 
The  types  of  the  representations  of  Charon  receiving  his  passen- 
gers vary  somewhat ;  in  some  cases  the  deceased  are  merely  about 
to  enter  the  boat,  or,  as  in  one  instance,  a  mother  is  handing  the 
grim  boatman  her  child ;  in  other  examples  the  sepulchral  stele 
and  a  figure  bearing  in  a  basket  the  customary  offerings  appear, 
and  Charon  with  his  boat  waits  near  by,  ready  to  receive  the  dead 
person  who  moves  toward  him  or  who  is  seated  by  the  stele.  In 
such  scenes  there  is  thus  a  combination  of  the  journey  to  Hades 
with  the  cult  of  the  tomb.  This  latter  subject  is  treated  by  the 
vase-painters  with  a  good  deal  of  variety ;  sometimes  only  one 
figure  is  represented  with  offerings  at  the  stele  which  is  commonly 
draped  with  fillets  ;  in  other  examples  more  figures  are  introduced, 
suggesting  the  gathering  of  the  family  at  the  tomb.  Occasionally 
little  winged  figures  (e'SwAa),  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  hover  about 
the  monument.  Throughout  the  resemblance  of  these  scenes  to 
the  beautiful  Athenian  sepulchral  stelae  is  marked ;  there  is  the 
same  idealization  of  types,  the  same  charming  suggestion  of  happy 
family  life. 

GREEK  VASES  IN  SOUTHERN  ITALY 

This  is  a  subject  which  stands  somewhat  apart  from  the  study  of 
vases  in  Greece  proper  including  the  Greek  islands  and  the  colo- 
nial towns  of  Asia  Minor  and  Africa,  and  it  must  therefore  be  treated 
very  summarily.  The  Greek  vases  of  southern  Italy  have  not  yet 
received  as  much  scientific  study1  as  has  been  given  to  many  of  the 
earlier  styles,  and  far  fewer  specimens  of  them  have  been  well  pub- 
lished. The  conditions  therefore  of  their  origin  and  development 

1  There  is  one  monograph  on  the  subject  by  G.  Patroni,  Ceramica  antica 
nell1  Italia  meridionale,  Naples,  1897,  and  the  excellent  catalogue  of  the 
British  Museum,  Vol.  IV,  by  H.  B.  Walters. 


VASES  513 

are  less  thoroughly  known.  They  are  unquestionably  a  more  or 
less  direct  outgrowth  of  the  Attic  red-figured  style  as  it  appears  in 
different  localities  during  the  fourth  century  B.C.  The  Kertch 
vases  are  examples  of  such  an  outgrowth  in  the  East,  though  these 
vases,  in  spite  of  some  evidence  which  points  to  a  local  fabric  in 
the  Crimea  may,  to  a  great  extent,  have  been  made  in  Attica  and 
exported.  The  Italian  vases,  however,  many  of  which  cannot  be 
much  later  than  the  Kertch  class,  though  some  no  doubt  are, 
were  certainly  of  local  manufacture. 

The  vases  are  commonly  classified  on  the  general  basis  of  pro- 
venience as  Lucanian,  Campanian,  and  Apulian,  the  latter  class 
being  the  largest  and  in  many  ways  the  most  important.1  To  these 
may  be  added  a  fourth  class  which  seems  to  stand  in  pretty  close 
relation  to  the  vases  of  Lucania  and  Campania.  This  is  known 
as  the  "Style  of  Paestum,"  because  some  of  the  most 
important  vases  which  belong  to  it  were  found  there. 
The  Paestum  vases  include  five  signed  by  Assteas  and  one  by  Py- 
thon, and  a  number  of  other  unsigned  ones  which  may  be  grouped 
with  these.2  They  show  Attic  tradition,  and  the  rich  treatment  of 
drapery  on  them  recalls  to  some  extent  the  school  of  Midias 
(p.  503),  but  the  general  effect  of  the  pictures  is  very  different,  and 
the  large  heads  of  the  figures  are  noticeable.3  The  fashion  of  in- 
troducing half  figures  in  the  background,  which  commonly  seem  to 
be  mere  spectators  of  the  action,  is  a  marked  peculiarity,  though 
one  not  wholly  confined  to  the  Paestum  vases. 

1  Lucanian  vases  come  chiefly  from  Anzi,  Pisticci,  Pomarico,  and  Armento  ; 
Campanian  from  Nola,  Capua,  Avella,  and  Santa  Agata  dei  Goti ;  Apulian 
from  Ruvo,  Bari,  Ceglie,  and  Canosa  ;   but  the  delimitation  of  the  different 
regions  should  not  be  too  rigidly  understood. 

2  Cp.  Walters,  Hist,  of  Anc.  Pottery,  I,  p.  478,  and  Brit.  Mus.  Catal.,  IV, 
pp.  72  ff. 

8  Good  examples  are  a  crater  by  Assteas  in  Madrid  on  which  Heracles 
slaying  his  children  is  represented  (Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Fig.  732),  and 
the  vase  by  Python  with  Alcmena  on  her  funeral  pyre  (Jour.  Hell.  Stud.  XI, 
PI.  6).  The  picture  of  Heracles  and  his  children  appears  to  be  conceived 
almost  as  a  scene  on  the  stage. 
GREEK  ARCH. — 33 


514  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Of  the  three  other  styles  the  Lucanian,  to  judge  from  its  gen- 
eral qualities,  seems  to  be  the  earliest.     The  designs  are  usually 

simple  and  comparatively  severe  in  type  ;  the  treatment 
Lucanian       f    , 

of  drapery  shows  no  excess,  and  accessory  colors  are 

used  with  greater  restraint  than  is  the  case  in  other  vases  of  this 
period  from  southern  Italy.  The  heads  are  large,  as  on  the  Paes- 
turn  vases  ;  ground  lines  are  almost  always  lacking  when  figures  are 
placed  on  a  higher  level,  and  it  is  characteristic  that  the  garments, 
which  in  general  show  many  local  peculiarities,  are  ornamented 
with  broad  black  borders  and  with  dots  which  are  often  arranged 
in  groups  of  threes.  The  style  does  not  seem  to  change  appreci- 
ably and  shows  more  unity  than  the  others  do.  The  scenes 
depicted  are  usually  from  everyday  life,  though  mythological  sub- 
jects are  by  no  means  infrequent.1  The  vases  are  generally  large, 
and  the  amphora,  hydria,  and  bell-shaped  crater  are  common  ; 
there  is  also  .a  peculiar  local  form  of  the  latter  shape  usually 
known  as  the  nestoris?  As  is  the  case  in  the  other  Italian  styles, 
the  influence  of  both  the  tragic  and  comic  stage  is  marked.3 

The  Campanian  vases,  which  apparently  pass  through  a  longer 
course  of  development,  are  in  many  ways  very  different.     They  are 

commonly  rather  small,  even  such  forms  as  the  crater. 
Campanian 

amphora,  and  hydria  ;  the  drawing,  though  often  very 

careless,  is  less  stiff  than  on  the  Lucanian  vases  ;  picturesque  effect 
is  sought,  and  there  is  frequent  use  of  yellow,  purple,  white  in  large 
masses,  and,  on  some  examples,  of  carmine  red,  as  accessory  colors. 
Conventionalized  floral  patterns  of  varied  designs  are  frequent  and 

1  Cp.  Brit.  Mus.  Catal.,  IV,  p.  19.     Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Figs.  505, 
918,  919,  1307,  1308,  1939. 

2  Cp.  Brit.  Mus.  Catal.,  IV,  p.  6,  Fig.  3.     This  form  is  represented  on  a 
vase   of    the   same    shape    (Catal.    F.    175)    figured   in   Millingen-Reinach, 
Peintures,  PL  53. 

3  The   comic  stage  is  actually  represented  on   a  number  of  vases   from 
southern    Italy,  the   farces    popular   at  Tarentum    probably   furnishing   the 
painters  with  most  of  their    subjects.     See    Heydeman,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  I, 
pp.    260  ff.     For  tragedy   cp.    especially  J.  Vogel,   Scenen  Euripideischer 
Tragodien, 


VASES  515 

a  large  and  coarse  palmette  ornament  under  the  handles  is  charac- 
teristic. Sometimes  the  floral  element  has  considerable  beauty 
and  approaches  closely  to  nature.  The  so-called  "  Nolan  "  ampho- 
rae of  Attic  manufacture  (p.  41 7)  have  plainly  influenced  this  form 
of  vase  in  the  local  fabric  of  Campania,  though  the  fine  outline 
of  the  earlier  type  is  generally  absent  from  the  Italian  speci- 
mens (cp.  Baumeister,  Denkm'dler,  Fig.  821).  Plates  with  repre- 
sentations of  fish  are  common,  many  of  which  were  very  likely  for 
actual  use  at  meals  {Brit.  Mus.  Catal.,  IV,  p.  120  f.).  There 
has  been  an  attempt  to  classify  the  Campanian  vases,  associat- 
ing different  types  with  different  places,  and  to  some  extent  it 
seems  possible  to  do  this  successfully.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  be  sure  whether  a  vase  is  to  be  regarded  as 
Campanian  or  Apnlian,  for  both  styles  have  characteristics  in 
common.  In  the  choice  of  subjects,  the  Campanian  vases  show 
great  variety :  there  are  scenes  from  comedy  (Baumeister,  Denk- 
m'dler, Fig.  904,  the  Frogs  of  Aristophanes),  from  everyday  life, 
including  the  offering  at  the  tomb  (Brit.  Mus.  Catal.,  IV.,  PI.  viii), 
and  a  good  many  mythological  scenes.  Local  peculiarities  of 
dress  and  armor  are  noteworthy.1 

The  Apulian  vases  are  more  numerous  and  as  a  whole  more  im- 
portant than  any  others  from  southern  Italy,  and  it  is  possible  to 

trace  in  them  a  long  course  of  development  in  which 

Apuhan 
the  decoration  changes  from  a  comparatively  severe 

and  simple  character  into  a  style  that  is  florid  and  careless  in  the 
extreme.  On  the  later  vases  the  figures  of  Eros  gayly  decked  out 
with  women's  ornaments  furnish  a  distinctive  feature.  About  all 
the  shapes  used  by  the  Greek  potters  appear  among  the  Apulian 
vases,  though  often  with  modification  of  earlier  types,  and  one  form, 
at  least,  the  epichysis,  which  is  an  oenochoe  with  a  body  shaped  like 
a  pyxis ;  is  peculiar  to  the  style  (Brit.  Mus.  Catal. ,  IV,  p.  7,  Fig.  12). 

1  The  scars  from  "  firing "  the  legs  of  horses  and  donkeys,  which  are  so 
often  seen  in  the  region  of  Naples  to-day,  seem  to  be  represented  on  the  vase 
which  has  the  scene  from  the  Frogs  and  on  another  published  in  the  Comptt 
Rendu,  1863,  PI.  V. 


5i6 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


The  general  use  of  color  is  much  like  that  on  the  Campanian 
vases,  and  there  is  the  same  fondness  for  accessory  white  ;  elaborate 
conventional  floral  patterns  are  also  common.  The  most  impor- 
tant group  of  these  vases 
consists  of  large  amphorae 
and  craters,  which  are  not 
only  striking  specimens  of 
ceramic  art  because  of  the 
rich  effect  or  their  decora- 
tion, but  they  are  very 
noteworthy  also  for  the  in- 
teresting nature  of  the 
subjects  represented  upon 
them.  These  include  an 
important  series  of  scenes 
from  the  Lower  World 
which  appear  to  reflect 
Orphic  tradition,  sepul- 
chral and  mythological 
subjects,  and  subjects  taken 
from  tragedy.  Some  of 
the  latter  may  be  con- 
nected with  plays  of  Eu- 
ripides.1 The  chief  subject 
usually  covers  almost  the 
entire  body  of  the  vase,  the 
neck  being  reserved  for 
some  subordinate  scene  or 
decorated  with  a  more  or 
less  conventional  pattern 
often  of  rich  design.  The 


FlG.  402.  —  Crater  (sometimes  classed  as 
amphora).  Boston,  h.  1.246  m.  (Photo- 
graph.) 


1  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  PI.  10,  I,  Text,  pp.  47  ff.,  Walters,  History,  PI. 
XLV;  Furt.  and  Reich.,  Pis.  88  (Darius  in  council  considering  the  invasion 
of  Greece),  89  (the  sacrifice  of  the  Trojan  youths  at  the  tomb  of  Patroclus), 
90  (Medea  and  the  death  of  Jason's  queen),  with  accompanying  text. 


VASES  517 

figures  are  generally  ranged  in  three  rather  irregular  rows  and  stand 
on  dotted  ground  lines,  and  these  rows  are  frequently  broken  by  a 
building  with  columns  which  represents  a  house  or  palace.  In 
the  case  of  craters  the  handles  often  carry  moulded  medallions. 
Figure  402  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  class.  The  chief  person- 
ages represented  are  Achilles  and  Phoenix  and  the  dead  Thersites 
(cp.  Paton,  A.J.A.,  XII,  1908,  pp.  406  ff.jr7  The  drawing  on 
these  great  sepulchral  vases,  for  such  they  no  doubt  are,  is  fre- 
quently careless  and  sketchy,  but  it  also  shows  an  easy  mastery  of 
technique  and  thus  probably  reflects  to  some  degree  the  work 
of  the  great  Greek  painters  of  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

Some  interesting  questions  present  themselves  in  regard  to  this 
great  development  of  Greek  vase-painting  in  southern  Italy : 
How  did  these  local  styles  arise,  and  how  directly  are  they  the 
outgrowth  of  the  various  schools  in  the  mother  country?  Are 
there  earlier  vases  of  local  manufacture  which  may  be  considered 
the  forerunners  of  the  southern  Italian  groups?  Furtwangler, 
in  his  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture  (p.  108  f.),  pointed  out 
that  there  were  such  vases  and  called  attention  to  their  im- 
portant bearing  upon  the  later  schools.  As  yet  little  systematic 
study  has  been  given  them,  though  a  few  specimens  have  been 
well  published.1  The  style  of  these  vases  unquestionably  reflects 
that  of  the  Attic  masters,  and  yet  the  general  effect  is  often  dif- 
ferent, the  difference  being  largely  due  to  a  dissimilar  scheme  of 
proportions  in  rendering  the  human  figure.  This  is  well  shown  on 
an  interesting  crater  from  Pisticci  in  Lucania  (Fig.  403)  on  which 
the  scene  of  Odysseus  in  Hades  making  his  inquiries  of  Teiresias  is 
represented.  Some  of  these  vases  may  perhaps  have  been  im- 
ported from  Attica,  but  most  of  them  are  probably  the  work  of  the 
Greek  colonists  in  Italy.  The  finest  specimens  can  hardly  be 
dated  later  than  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and  it  is  significant  that 
some  of  the  craters  have  almost  exactly  the  form  of  the  great 
Attic  craters  which  are  usually  associated  with  Polygnotan  art 

1  Furt.  and  Reich.,  Pis.  60,  98-99 ;  Monumenti,  XII,  PI.  1 6  ;  Gerhard, 
Attserles.  Vasenbild.,  Pis.  153-154.  See  also  Walters,  History,  I,  p.  465. 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


(cp.  pp.  499,  531 ).  It  seems  likely  then  that  the  Italian  Greeks  of 
the  fifth  century  B.C  began  a  local  manufacture  of  vases  which,  while 
retaining  many  of  the  Attic  traditions,  developed  some  indepen- 
dence. For  many  years  there  had  been  a  large  importation  of 
vases  from  Greece,  but  this  fell  off  soon  after  the  middle  of  the 


FlG.  403.  —  From  a  crater.     Paris,  Bihliotheque  Nationale.    (Furt.  and  Reich., 

PI.  60.) 

fifth  century,  partly,  perhaps,  because  of  the  Peloponnesian  War 
(p.  501).  Thus  it  seems  probable  that  the  cessation  of  importation 
gave  the  Greeks  of  southern  Italy  the  chance  to  develop  more 
independent  work. 

VASES  WITH  RELIEFS  AND  VASES  IN  PLASTIC  FORM 

The  combination  of  the   potter's  handicraft  with  that  of  the 
maker  of  terracotta  reliefs  and  with  the  work  of   the  coroplast 


VASES  519 

appears  very  early  in  the  history  of  Greek  art,  but  it  is  a  combina- 
tion which  can  hardly  be  called  really  popular  before  the  deca- 
dence of  vase-painting  sets  in.  Very  often  when  vases  are  adorned 
with  reliefs  or  have  a  plastic  form  the  influence  of  the  workers  in 
metal  upon  those  in  clay  is  evident.  This  influence  may  be  seen 
in  the  plastic  treatment  of  the  handles  of  many  vases,  and  the 
form  of  even  the  plain  handles  of  the  typical  amphorae  of 
Nicosthenes  (p.  482)  strongly  recalls  metal  technique.  In  the 
case  of  such  vases  as  the  so-called  Megarian  bowls1  there 
is  a  definite  imitation  of  metal  repousse"  work,  and  in  the 
Italian  successors  of  this  type  of  ware,  such  as  the  so-called  Cale- 
nian  phialae,  and  the  Arretine  pottery  of  Roman  times,  there  is  a 
similar  marked  resemblance  to  vessels  of  silver  and  bronze.  Thus 
the  technique  of  vases  which  bear  reliefs  or  which  are  moulded  in 
plastic  form  is  not  that  of  the  ordinary  manufacture  of  pottery, 
but  is  really  that  of  plastic  work  in  terracotta  and  of  modelling 
for  work  in  bronze  or  marble ;  and  the  classification  of  such 
vases  in  accordance  with  artistic  style  depends  chiefly  upon  the 
principles  which  obtain  in  these  allied  arts. 

Early  examples  of  the  plastic  treatment  of  vases  appear  in  the 
primitive  pottery  of  Troy,  and  the  pottery  of  Mycenaean  times, 
especially  as  it  develops  in  Cyprus,  furnishes  many  specimens.2 
In  the  Geometric  period,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  very  few, 
and  it  is  not  until  about  the  seventh  century  B.C.  that  plastic  design 
in  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  vases  becomes  at  all 
common  in  Greece.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  interesting  bucchero 
ware,  the  national  pottery  of  Etruria,  with  its  reliefs  and  plastic 
forms,  begins  at  this  time.3  It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than 
call  attention  to  some  of  the  important  examples  of  the  plastic 
decoration  of  vases  as  it  appears  in  the  course  of  the  development 
of  Greek  pottery.  Of  these  none  are  more  noteworthy  in  the  early 
period  than  some  of  large  pithoi  from  Boeotia  which  may  be  ap- 

1  Cp.  Robert,  Homerische  Becker,  Winckelmannsprogr.     (Berlin),  1890. 

2  Cp.  Pettier,  "  Les  vases  archa'iques  a  reliefs,"  B.  CM.,  1888.,  pp.  491  ff. 
*  Cp.  Album  of  the  Louvre  Catalogue,  Pis.  22-28. 


52° 


GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 


proximately  dated  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  and  of 
which  there  are  two  fine  specimens  in  the  Museum  at  Boston.1 
Boeotian      1 ne  general  scheme  of  decoration  on  the  body  of  this 
pithoi       type  of  vase  is  the  band  of  animal  figures  (the  same 
figure  being  repeated)  and  the  analogy  to  the  orientalizing  painted 
vases  and  metal  reliefs  of  the  time  is  therefore  strong.     On  the 
neck  of  the  vase  there  is  a  freer  treatment  of  the  subject  rep- 
resented,    commonly 
a  mythological  scene, 
and  here  too  oriental 
influence  is  evident. 

Figure  404,  the  frag- 
ment of  a  pithos  re- 
cently found  at  Sparta, 
illustrates  a  later  stage 
in  the  development  of 
plastic  work  on  vases. 
Here  the  resemblance 
to  Ionic  black-figured 
painting  is  so  strong 
that  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  may  safely  be 
given  as  the  date  of 
the  vase.  In  this  case 
the  reliefs  were  made 
separately  and  affixed 
Among  more  delicate  vases,  dating 


FIG.  404.  —  Pithos.     Sparta.     (Ann.  of  Brit.  School, 
XII,  PL  9.) 


to  the  vase  before  firing, 
approximately  from  this  time,  which  show  plastic  features,  are 
some  of  the  later  and  finer  specimens  of  Proto-Corinthian  ware 
(p.  446,  note),  but  in  general  it  is  not  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixth  century  when  the  transition  from  the  black- figured  to  the 
red-figured  style  begins  that  there  appears  to  be  any  marked  de- 
velopment in  this  kind  of  work.  At  this  time  there  is  a  small  but 


1  Report   of  the    Museum   for  \\ 
pp.  439  ff. 


p.    52;    De    Ridder,   B.C.H.,    1898, 


VASES 


521 


important  series  of  vases  signed  (firoirprev)  by  an  Athenian  potter, 
Charinus,1  which  are  moulded  with  great  delicacy  in  the  shape  of 
a  female  head.  The  work  is  black-figured  and  ar- 
chaic, and  the  type  of  face  like  that  of  the  female  fig- 
ures from  the  Acropolis.  These  vases  of  Charinus  may  be  regarded 
as  the  beginning  of  a  great  development  in  the  plastic  treatment  of 
pottery,  which  continues  through  the  whole  course  of  Attic  vase- 
painting  and  is  amply  illustrated  in  the  Italian  styles.  The  rhytum, 
or  drinking-horn,  is  the  most  frequent  form  for  such  vases  (though 
other  forms,  notably  the  lecythus,  occur  also),  and  it  assumes  many 
shapes,  the  heads  of  men  and  animals  being  especially  common 


FlG .  405.  —  Rhytum.    Boston, 
h.  0.254  m.     (Photograph.) 


FlG.  406.  —  Lecythus.     Boston. 
h.  0.19  m.     (Photograph.) 


(Fig.  405).  The  vases  are  often  grotesque  rather  than  beautiful, 
but  others  show  the  qualities  of  the  best  Greek  work.2  Figure  406, 
a  lecythus,  belongs  to  a  series  of  elaborately  moulded  vases  which 

1  Cp.  Klein,  MeistersignatTiren,  p.  215,  and  especially  Reisch,  Rom.  Mitt.,  V 
(1890),  PI.  ii,  pp.  313  ff.     Cp.  Kekule  v.  Stradonitz,  Die griechische  Skulptur, 
2d  ed.,  pp.  47  ff. 

2  Jour.  Hell.  Stud.,  VTII,  PI.  LXXII,  rhytum  (early  "  fine  style  "),  in  the  form 
of  a  sphinx,  painted  with  a  white  slip;  XV,  PI.  V,  aryballus  (late  fifth  century), 
a  bust  of  Athena.    These  two  vases  are  among  the  finest  of  their  kind. 


522  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

represent  Aphrodite  issuing  from  a  seashell.  Such  vases  are  to 
be  dated  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  They 
might  properly  enough  be  classed  with  terracotta  figurines. 

The  ornamentation  of  vases  by  means  of  reliefs  is  exceedingly 
rare  until  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  probably  because  of 
the  excellence  and  popularity  of  the  work  of  the  vase-painters. 
Considerable  interest  therefore  attaches  to  the  fragment  of  a  cyttx 
{Ath.  Mitt.,  V,  1880,  PI.  X)  now  in  Athens  on  which  is  repre- 
sented in  the  interior  a  figure  of  Artemis  in  low  relief.  The  work 
is  exceedingly  delicate  and  the  style  is  that  of  the  red-figured 
cylixes  of  the  "  severe  "  period.  The  face  of  the  figure  and  the 
arms  and  feet  are  in  white,  and  white  is  used  for  the  inscription  in 
raised  letters  (o  irai[s  xaAos]),  for  the  bow  of  the  goddess  and  for 
the  surrounding  meander  pattern.  On  the  back  of  the  cylix  was  a 
dedicatory  inscription,  also  in  raised  letters,  and  a  zone  of  animal 
figures  encircled  this.1  The  ground  was  gilded  so  that  the  vase 
appears  to  have  been  an  imitation  in  miniature  of  ivory  and  gold 
technique.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  the  practice 
of  attaching  separately  moulded  figures  to  the  surface  of  vases 
becomes  common,  —  applique  relief  work,  —  and  of  this  technique 
there  are  some  very  beautiful  examples.2  This  method  of  decora- 
tion is  frequent  during  the  fourth  century  B.C.  and  is  illustrated  on 
the  Kertch  vases  and  on  those  of  southern  Italy.  The  resem- 
blance of  the  reliefs  to  those  on  bronze  mirrors  is  often  striking, 
and  the  specimens  referred  to  in  the  note  recall  the  Alexander 
Sarcophagus  (p.  275)  in  subject,  style,  and  coloring. 

Through  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  B.C.  the  tendency  of  the 

1  For   another   example,   perhaps   from   the  fifth   century,  a  crater,  from 
Corinth,  see  Collection  Sabourojf,  PL  74,  3. 

2  Cp.  Antiquites  du  Bosphore  Cimmerien,  Pis.  XLV,  XLVI  (Rayet  and 
Collignon,  Histoire,  Figs.  100,  101),  a  splendid  lecythus  with  out-curving  sides 
from  Kertch,  signed  by  the  Athenian  Xenophantus,  on  which  white,  blue,  and 
gilding  are  freely  used.    The  chief  subject  of  the  reliefs  is  a  hunt  at  the  Persian 
court.     See  also  Monuments  Piot,  X,  Pis.  6,  7,  a  very  fine  pitcher,  with  figures 
on  a  gold  ground,  flesh  white,  garments  blue  and  pink,  ground  lines  in  blue. 
The  scene  represented  is  the  Calydonian  boar-hunt. 


VASES  523 

potters  to  imitate  metal  technique  is  increasingly  marked.  It  is 
perhaps  especially  evident  in  southern  Italy,  and  may  be  seen 
among  other  instances  in  a  well-marked  class  of  amphorae,  hydriae, 
and  oenochoae  found  there.  These  are  covered,  except  for  small 
decorative  designs,  often  in  relief,  with  lustrous  black  varnish,  and 
frequently  the  body  of  the  vase  is  ribbed  or  fluted.  In  some 
smaller  vases  the  same  tendency  toward  the  imitation  of  metal 
technique  is,  if  possible,  even  more  noticeable.  This  may  be  seen 
in  the  so-called  Calenian />/«#/<a^,  which  get  their  name  from  Gales 
in  Campania  where  a  good  number  have  been  found.  There  are 
examples  of  medallions  on  this  ware  which  are  actual  imitations  of 
known  coins,  and  one  vase  in  the  British  Museum  (Walters,  History, 
PI.  XLV1II,  Fig.  5)  was  evidently  made  from  the  same  mould  that 
was  used  for  a  pair  of  silver  bowls,  also  in  that  museum.  In  Greece 
proper  during  the  third  century  B.C.  the  vases  called  Megarian 
Megarian  bowls  are  the  best-known  illustrations  of  this  bowls 
imitation  of  metal.  They  have  been  found  in  many  places,  but 
since  the  earlier  discussions  about  them  were  concerned  with  speci- 
mens from  Megara,  the  name  Megarian  has  clung  to  them (cp.  note  i, 
p.  519).  They  have  also  been  called  Homeric  bowls,  because  the 
subjects  represented  on  them  are  largely  drawn  from  Epic  narra- 
tive, and  Suetonius  mentions  scyphi  Ho  merit  on  Nero's  table  which 
were  engraved  with  scenes  from  the  Homeric  poems.  One  interest- 
ing specimen  {Brit.  Mus.  CataL,  IV,  PI.  XVI)  is  decorated  with 
scenes  from  the  Phoenissae  of  Euripides.  The  bowls  are  commonly 
hemispherical  in  shape  (sometimes  cylindrical),  and  the  red  clay 
was  covered  over  with  black  varnish  and  fired  at  a  very  high  tem- 
perature; as  a  result  the  surface  takes  on  a  metallic  appearance,  and 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  vases  were  used  by  persons  who  could 
not  afford  the  more  costly  vessels  of  metal  which  were  fashionable 
in  Hellenistic  times.  The  designs  on  the  Megarian  bowls  are  either 
separately  stamped  and  then  attached  to  the  vase,  or  the  vases  are 
made  entirely  in  moulds  after  the  manner  of  most  of  the  Arretine 
pottery,  with  a  brief  mention  of  which  the  discussion  of  vases  is 
brought  to  an  end. 


524  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

The  vases  made  at  Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  the  ancient  Arretium, 
commonly  called  Arretine,  are  really  Italian,  but  the  designs  of 

Arretine  their  decoration  are  so  strongly  Greek  in  character 
ware  that  they  may  fairly  be  classed  with  specimens  of  Greek 
ceramic  art.  The  manufacture  of  the  best  quality  of  this  ware  ex- 
tended from  about  fifty  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era  to  about  fifty  years  after  it,  though  no  doubt  these  limits  may 
be  advanced  a  good  number  of  years  in  each  direction  to  cover 
the  periods  of  rise  and  decline.  The  finest  specimens  are 
of  the  Augustan  age.  At  first  the  pottery  was  covered  with  a 
black  glaze  suggesting  metal,  like  the  Megarian  bowls,  but  very 
soon  this  was  given  up,  and  it  is  the  fine  red  hue  of  the  clay, 
heightened  by  the  use  of  a  red  glaze,  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
pottery  as  a  whole  and  which  gives  its  surface  something  the  effect 
of  coral.  Plain  vases  occur,  vases  with  reliefs  "  applied  "  to  them, 
and  vases  made  in  moulds,  the  last  class  being  much  the  largest 
and  most  important.  Fortunately  a  great  many  of  the  moulds 
have  been  found,  and  some  also  of  the  stamps  used  in  making 
them,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  understand  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture with  unusual  completeness.  Figure  407  represents  a  cast  taken 
from  a  mould.  The  vases,  which  are  generally  small,  are  chiefly 
bowls,  cups  without  handles,  and  dishes,  though  sometimes  a 
crater  shape  occurs  ;l  but  such  larger  vases  have  not  the  character- 
istic Greek  forms,  and  the  lines  suggest  merely  an  enlargement  of 
the  smaller  vessels.  Interesting  and  curious  are  the  inscriptions 
on  this  class  of  ware ;  they  record  the  name  of  the  proprietor  of 
the  pottery,  of  the  slave  who  made  the  vase,  or  both,  and  it  is  a 
noteworthy  fact  that  most  of  the  names  of  slaves  are  Greek.  The 
designs  of  the  reliefs  are  often  exceedingly  beautiful,  and  the 
figures  suggest  those  of  the  fine  stucco  wall  decoration  from  the 
Farnesina  garden,  now  in  the  Museo  delle  Terme  in  Rome.  Indi- 
vidual figures  occasionally  recall  Greek  works  of  even  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  and  their  resemblance  to  types  of  the  fourth  century, 

1  Rayet  and  Collignon,  Histoire,  PI.  13,  I,  and  Fig.  131;  Walters,  History, 
Fig.  219. 


VASES 


525 


to  those  of  the  Hellenistic  period,  and  especially  to  the  so-called 
Neo- Attic  reliefs  is  strong;  they  are  indeed  sometimes  identical  with 
figures  from  these  reliefs.  The  designing  of  the  figures  on  the 
Arretine  pottery  is  thus  distinctly  eclectic,  and  even  for  the  general 
types  and  decoration  of  their  vases  the  potters  appear  to  have 


FlG.  407.  —  Cast  of  an  Arretine  bowl.     (Loeb  Collection,  Catalogue,  PI.  II.) 
0.175  m-    h.  0.101  m. 


Diam. 


depended  upon  the  makers  of  gold  and  silver  vessels ;  thus  their 
decorative  schemes  often  recall  the  silver  vases  of  Hildesheim, 
Boscoreale,  and  Bernay.1 

1  A  recent  and  important  work  on  Arretine  pottery  is  the  Catalogue  of  the 
Loeb  Collection  by  G.  H.  Chase,  New  York,  1908.  This  contains  an  intro- 
duction which  treats  generally  of  the  type  of  ware.  The  collection  of  Arre- 
tine pottery  at  the  Museum  in  Boston  and  that  of  Mr.  Loeb,  now  deposited 
at  the  Fogg  Museum  at  Harvard,  are  among  the  most  important  that  have 
been  made. 


CHAPTER   IX 
PAINTING   AND   MOSAIC 

SINCE  this  handbook  is  intended  to  serve  chiefly  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  study  of  Greek  art  as  it  is  known  from  actual  remains, 
the  subject  of  painting  is  treated  very  briefly.  That  masterpieces 
of  this  art  existed  in  Greece  there  is  no  doubt,  but  they  have  per- 
ished utterly. 

Our  monumental  sources  for  a  knowledge  of  Greek  painting, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  on,  are  first  of  all  the 
Monumental  Corinthian pinaces  (p.  452),  the  sarcophagi  from  Cla- 

sources  zomenae  (p.  461),  and  the  vases  —  the  black- figured, 
and  especially  the  red-figured  Attic  vases,  for  hints  as  to  com- 
position and  drawing,  and  the  Attic  vases  with  white  ground 
for  the  technical  effect  of  the  Polygnotan  period.  Then  there 
are  scanty  remains  of  painting  on  marble,  of  which  the  stele  of 
Lyseas  (Conze,  Grabreliefs,  PL  I ;  Ath.  Mitt.,  IV,  Pis.  I  and  II) 
is  a  leading  example,  and  there  is  an  interesting  terracotta 
tablet  from  the  Acropolis  CE<£.  'Apx->  l887>  pl-  6)-  Here  the 
terracotta  is  covered  with  a  yellowish  layer  of  some  composition, 
and  the  drawing  in  colors  (black  and  brown,  dark  red  or  crim- 
son) is  done  on  this,  with  some  use  of  incision.1  Next  are  the 

1  An  important  series  of  painted  sepulchral  stelae  was  found  at  Pagasae 
in  1907.  Only  a  few  of  them  have  as  yet  been  published,  and  these  quite  in- 
adequately. Dr.  Arvanitopoulos,  who  has  had  charge  of  the  excavations 
at  Pagasae,  believes  them  to  reflect  pretty  closely  the  art  of  the  Greek  painters 
of  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  B.C.  Technically,  the  stelae  are  valuable 
illustrations  of  the  use  of  the  encaustic  process,  but  of  their  importance  as 
throwing  light  upon  the  work  of  such  artists  as  Apelles,  Nicias,  and  Pausias, 
it  is  perhaps  too  soon  to  judge.  See  'E0.  'Apx-,  1908,  pp.  i  ff.,  Pis.  1—4. 
Important,  too,  is  the  recent  careful  study  by  M.  Marcel  Bulard,  of  the  frescoes 
and  mosaics  at  Delos,  Monuments  Piot,  XIV,  1908. 

526 


PAINTING  AND   MOSAIC  527 

series  of  paintings  found  in  the  tombe  a  camera  of  Etruria.  Some 
of  the  earlier  of  these  are  painted  on  terracotta  plaques ;  others, 
which  are  still  more  important,  are  wall  paintings,  sometimes  done 
directly  on  the  wall,  sometimes  upon  a  thin  layer  of  stucco.  One  of 
the  best  examples  of  the  later  Etruscan  painting  is  on  an  ala- 
baster sarcophagus  from  Corneto  (Jour.  Hell.  Stud.,  IV,  Pis. 
XXXVI-XXXVIII).  This  may  be  work  of  the  fourth  century  B.C. 
These  Etruscan  paintings,  interesting  in  themselves,  and  betraying 
at  every  turn  Greek,  and  especially  Ionic,  influence,  are  important 
for  the  illustration  they  afford  of  the  development  of  painting  in 
the  period  from  the  sixth  to  the  fourth  century  B.C.  ;  but,  though 
they  yield  some  suggestions  as  to  the  use  of  color,  especially  of 
its  highly  conventional  use  in  the  early  stages  of  Greek  painting,  it 
must  nevertheless  have  been  a  far  cry  from  the  paintings  of  Etruria 
to  the  great  works  of  the  leading  Greek  masters.  Their  chief  im- 
portance to  the  student  of  Greek  painting  lies  in  the  fact  that  their 
own  development  reflects  the  similar  development  in  Greece. 
Marked  Greek  influence,  or  perhaps  actual  Greek  work,  is  found 
also  in  a  few  Lucanian  frescoes,  notably  at  Paestum. 

A  further  source  of  knowledge,  though  not  a  contemporary 
source,  is  to  be  found  in  the  paintings  of  Pompeii,  Herculaneum, 
and  Rome,  and  in  the  portrait  mummy  tablets  from  the  Fayum, 
which  date  from  the  early  years  of  our  era.  Unfortunately  the  in- 
ferences which  may  be  drawn  from  Pompeian  and  similar  art  are 
very  general.  The  mythological  subjects  chosen  by  the  decorators 
of  the  houses  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  no  doubt  show  their 
entire  dependence  upon  Greek  tradition,  and  it  is  probable,  to 
take  a  definite  and  typical  example,  that  the  well-known  picture  of 
Medea  from  Herculaneum  (Fig.  408)  harks  back  to  an  original  of 
Timomachus  of  Byzantium  (first  century  B.C.),  but  this  cannot  be 
proved,  and  another  picture  of  the  same  subject  from  Pompeii, 
which  is  more  completely  preserved  (Baumeister,  Denkmaler, 
Fig.  155),  shows  marked  variations  of  detail.  Thus  it  is  impossible 
to  say  how  close  the  resemblance  to  the  work  of  Timomachus  may 
be,  and  a  similar  doubt  constantly  arises  in  cases  where  a  subject 


5*8 


GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 


known  to  have  been  used  by  a  Greek  painter  of  note  has  been 
chosen  by  the  Graeco- Roman  decorator.  Nevertheless,  the  paint- 
ings of  Pompeian  type  do  give  general  hints  as  to  the  Greek 
painting  of  the  Hellenistic  period,1  and,  in  spite  of  mechanical  exe- 
cution and  the  air  of  rather  wholesale 
production  which  many  of  them  sug- 
gest, they  are  by  no  means  without  real 
merit  They  show  much  skill  in  the 
use  of  color,  often  considerable  ability 
in  composition,  and  a  knowledge  of 
perspective  which,  though  certainly 
imperfect,  was  hardly  equalled  in 
Inter  times  before  the  Renaissance. 
Thus  it  seems  likely  that  the  great 
Greek  painters,  from  the  fourth  century 
B.C.  on,  must  gradually  have  developed 
a  considerable  understanding  of  per- 
spective. Every  now  and  then  these 
Graeco-Roman  paintings  show  real 
power,  and  thus  serve  to  indicate  how 
great  the  loss  of  works  by  masters  like 
Apelles  and  Protogenes  really  is. 

The  pictures  from  the  Fayum,  exe- 
cuted  commonly   on   wooden   panels, 
partly  in  tempera,  and  partly  in  encaustic, 
form  an  extraordinarily  interesting  series 
illustrating  Graeco- Egyptian  portraiture 
(Fig.  409).     The  best  of  them  are  life- 
like and  are  works  of  no  inconsiderable 
merit ,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  Roman 
and    Pompeian  art,  when  we  seek  to 
form  an   impression  of  earlier   Greek 
art   from    them,  we  are  on   uncertain  ground.     In  the  pictorial 
relief-sculpture  of  Hellenistic  times  we  may  also  get  a  few  hints 
1  Cp./our.  Hell.  Stud.,  XVI,  pp.  143  ff. 


Fm.  408.  —  Me  lea.     Naples. 
(Photograph  by  G.  Brogi.) 


PAINTING   AND   MOSAIC 


S29 


with  reference  to  the  painting  of  the  time,  in  such  matters  at  least 
as  the  arrangement  and  balance  of  figures,  the  subjects  treated, 
and  the  general  progress  of  artistic  skill. 

Besides  the  monumental  sources  thus  briefly  described,  there  are 
also  literary  sources  for  a  knowledge  of  painting.1     These  consist 
of  statements  in  regard  to  artists  and  their  work  col-     Literary 
lected  from  a  wide  range  of  classic  literature,  the  most     sources 
extended  being  those  of  the  elder  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  XXXV)  who, 
though  often  loose  and  care- 
less in  his  statements,  has 
attempted  something  like  a 
systematic  history  of  Greek 
painting.       Important    in- 
formation, too,  is  afforded 
among  others  by  Pausanias 
and  Lucian. 

From  such  sources  the 
following  inferences  have 
been  drawn,  often  with  un- 
certainty in  matters  of  de- 
tail. A  school  of  painting 
existed  in  Ionia  by  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury B.C.,  with  which  the 
names  of  Boularchus  (p. 
456),  Saurias  of  Samos,  and 
Philocles,  an  Egyptian,  may 
be  associated.  As  to  this 
school,  we  probably  get 
some  general  hints  from  the  various  Ionic  vases,  and  from  the 
sarcophagi  of  Clazomenae.  It  seems  likely  that  it  was  poly- 
chromatic in  distinction  from  the  early  schools  of  continental 
Greece.  In  this  latter  region  Corinth  and  Sicyon  take  the  lead 

1  Cp.  Overbeck,  Die  antiken  Schriftquellcn  zur  Geschichtc  der  bildenden 
Kunste  bei  den  Griechen. 

GREEK    ARCH.  —  34 


FlG.   409.  —  Portrait  on   linen   of  a  woman 
named  Aline.   Berlin.    (Ant.  Denk.,  II,  PI.  13.) 


530  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

in  the  seventh  century  B.C.  —  Corinth  with  the  artists  Clean- 
tries,  Aridices,  Ecphantus,  and  Aregon ;  Sicyon  with  Craton  and 
Telephanes ;  and  the  legendary  names  of  Eucheir  and  Eugram- 
rnus  are  also  associated  with  Corinth  (pp.  450  f.).  Pliny  mentions 
besides  three  painters  with  Doric  names,  Hygiaenon,  Dimias,  and 
Charmidas,  but  the  inference  from  his  words  that  there  was  a 
specially  Doric  school  is  hardly  warranted.  With  Eumarus  of 
Athens,  the  father  of  Antenor  the  sculptor,  and  Cimon  of  Cleonae 
we  reach  historic  times,  probably  about  the  age  of  Solon  in  the 
case  of  the  former,  and  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  in  that 
of  the  latter.  It  is  likely  that  in  their  works  the  Ionic  and  con- 
tinental tendencies  which  met  at  Athens  were  united.  To  Eumarus 
Pliny  attributes  great  skill  in  the  delineation  of  figures,  and  to 
Cimon  the  honor  of  having  improved  upon  the  work  of  Eumarus, 
and  especially  of  having  introduced  Kardyp^a  (Jwc  est  obliquas 
imagines,  sc.  invenit),  which  no  doubt  involved  foreshortening ; 
he  was  skillful  also  in  rendering  the  anatomy  of  the  figure  and  the 
effects  of  drapery.  Cimon's  influence  may  probably  be  seen  in 
the  red-figured  vases  of  the  "  severe  style."  Thus  the  art  of  paint- 
ing must  have  attained  to  considerable  excellence  when  Polygnotus 
began  his  work  just  after  the  Persian  War.  Through  his  influence 
and  that  of  other  artists  more  or  less  closely  associated  with  him 
there  was  a  marked  development,  especially  in  composition  and  in 
portrayal  of  character,  and  later  tradition  gives  him  unstinted  praise. 
Polygnotus  was  from  the  island  of  Thasos  and  of  a  family  which 
apparently  possessed  considerable  artistic  talent.  It  is  likely 

that  he  inherited  many  of  the  traditions  of  the  old 
Polygnotus  ,....,  ....  ,-  , 

Ionic  school  of  painting,  but  he  is  himself  to  be  associ- 
ated primarily  with  the  active  artistic  and  intellectual  life  of  Athens 
to  which  so  many  Greeks  from  other  regions  were  contributors.  In 
the  study  of  his  works  our  sources  of  information  are  twofold  —  the 
accounts  of  them  which  have  come  down  through  many  generations 
of  Greek  writers,  with  a  few  remarks  of  Pliny  (such  sources  are  of 
course  not  contemporary  with  Polygnotus),  and  the  contemporary 
or  slightly  later  specimens  which  we  have  of  the  minor  art  of 


PAINTING  AND   MOSAIC  531 

vase-painting.1  Among  the  descriptions  of  his  wall  paintings,  or 
of  similar  works  by  painters  associated  with  him,  like  Micon  and 
Panaenus,  the  brother  of  Phidias,  two  are  of  especial  impor- 
tance. These  are  the  long  and  detailed  accounts  which  Pausa- 
nias  (X,  25-31)  gives  of  two  great  frescoes  in  the  Lesche  of  the 
Cnidians  at  Delphi,  the  one  representing  "  Troy  after  its  capture 
and  the  departure  of  the  Greeks,"  the  other,  the  "  Visit  of  Odys- 
seus to  the  Lower  World."  So  elaborate  are  these  accounts  that 
there  have  been  many  attempts  to  gain  some  idea  of  the  compo- 
sition of  the  paintings  by  making  drawings  from  the  descriptions, 
but  at  best  such  attempts  must  involve  many  uncertainties.  The 
drawings,  however,  published  by  Professor  Robert  (Winckel- 
mannsprogramme,  Halle,  1892  and  1893)  which  have  been  made 
in  connection  with  a  careful  study  of  contemporary  vases,  are 
of  great  value  in  lending  reality  to  the  account  of  Pausanias. 
It  seems  impossible  from  this  to  be  sure  whether  Polygnotus 
represented  any  one  of  the  many  groups  of  figures  in  the  paint- 
ings as  distinctly  forming  a  central  scene  such  as  would  serve  to 
unify  the  whole  composition.  Pausanias's  description  indicates 
rather  a  number  of  more  or  less  separate  groups  each  having  to 
some  degree  a  unity  of  its  own.  Some  of  the  large  wall  paintings 
of  Puvis  de  Chavannes  may  perhaps  afford  suggestive  comparisons. 
Pausanias  often  says  that  persons  are  above  or  below  those 
whom  he  has  been  speaking  of  (thus  pointing  to  differences  of 
level),  or  in  a  line  with  them.  The  remark  of  itself  does  not  seem 
particularly  important,  but  there  are  a  number  of  vases  which 
may  be  assigned  to  a  period  just  following  the  "severe  style" 
of  red-figured  vase-painting,  and  these  seem  to  throw  light  on  the 
matter.  They  are  commonly  large  vases,  and  the  scenes  depicted 
upon  them  suggest  a  relation  to  wall-paintings  of  large  scale.2  A  fine 
crater  from  Orvieto,  now  in  the  Louvre,  upon  which  the  slaughter  of 

1  Cp.  Th.  Schreiber,  Die  Wandbilder  des  Polygnotus. 

3  Cp.  Furt.  and  Reich.,  Pis.  6,  17-18,  26-28,  55,  75-76,  with  the  accom- 
panying text.  There  are  three  fine  vases  which  illustrate  this  large  style  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York. 


532  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  Niobids  (Fig.  410) l  and  a  scene  from  the  Argonautic  myth 
(Fig.  41 1)  are  painted,  is  among  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  vases, 
and  from  it,  as  well  as  from  the  others  of  its  class,  we  can  probably 
form  some  idea  of  the  methods  of  Polygnotus.  There  is  only 
the  dimmest  notion  of  perspective,  and  the  different  levels  upon 
which  the  figures  stand,  like  those  shown  on  the  mountain  side 
in  the  Niobid  vase,  are  indicated  by  irregular  lines  running  across 
the  ground  of  the  picture.  The  more  distant  figures  are  on 


FIG.  410.  —  Slaughter  of  the  Niobids.    Crater,  Louvre,    h.  of  vase  0.55  m. 
(Monumenti,  XI,  Pis.  38-40.) 

the  higher  levels,  but  they  are  not  drawn  on  a  smaller  scale. 
To  this  general  rule  the  smaller,  partly  hidden  figure  toward  the 
top  of  the  Argonautic  scene  may  be  regarded  as  an  excep- 
tion. The  groups  are  simple,  and  the  background  is  indicated 
in  the  symbolical  manner  characteristic  of  Greek  art ;  thus  a  tree 
represents  the  forest  of  the  mountain  .on  the  Niobid  vase.  Simi- 
lar brief  indications  of  locality  appear  in  Pausanias's  descrip- 
tion of  the  wall  paintings  at  Delphi,  where  he  mentions  the  grove 
of  Persephone  and  the  pebbles  on  the  seashore  near  which 
1  Cp.  P.  Gardner,  Jour.  Hett.  Stud.,  X,  pp.  117  ft 


(533) 


534  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

Nestor  stands.  So  it  is  probably  safe  to  infer  that  the  much- 
praised  beauty  of  the  work  of  Polygnotus  lay  in  its  simplicity  and 
dignity  and  in  the  purity  of  line-drawing  which  on  the  vases  has 
so  interested  some  of  the  best  draughtsmen  of  modern  times, 
the  French  artist  Ingres,  for  example.  This  skill  in  the  use  of 
the  simple  line  is  characteristic  of  all  the  best  vases,  but  from  the 
nature  of  the  technique  it  attracts  attention  especially  in  the  finest 
examples  of  those  which  show  line-drawing  on  a  white  ground 
(pp.  506  ff.).  These  vases  are  well  calculated  to  supplement 
those  of  the  class  to  which  the  Orvieto  crater  belongs  in  suggesting 
the  probable  appearance  of  the  Polygnotan  wall-paintings.  In  the 
stage  at  which  the  vases  with  white  ground  take  on  a  polychro- 
matic character,  they  probably  afford  further  evidence  of  the  color 
effect  of  the  paintings.  Since  we  know  the  subjects  of  various 
pictures  by  Polygnotus  besides  those  at  Delphi,  such,  for  example, 
as  Odysseus  and  Nausicaa,  Odysseus's  slaughter  of  the  Suitors, 
and  the  killing  of  Aegisthus  by  Orestes,  and  since  these  subjects 
have  been  used  also  by  vase-painters,  there  may  sometimes  be  a 
question  as  to  whether  the  motives  on  the  vases,  or  single  figures 
upon  them,  may  not  have  been  taken  directly  from  the  greater 
works  of  art.  But  a  connection  here  is  difficult  to  establish, 
since  the  legends  were  common  property  a:id  were  part  of  the 
vase-painters'  material  long  before  the  time  of  Polygnotus.  Aris- 
totle speaks  of  the  idealistic  treatment  of  his  subjects  which  charac- 
terized Polygnotus  —  a  remark  which  seems  to  bring  the  painter 
close  to  the  Phidian  school  of  sculpture  —  and  he  says  that,  in  con- 
trast to  Zeuxis,  Polygnotus  was  a  skilful  delineator  of  character. 
Thus  it  seems  certain,  in  spite  of  very  inadequate  sources  of  infor- 
mation, that  his  art  was  of  a  thoroughly  strong  and  elevated  quality. 
With  the  fourth  century  B.C.  Greek  painting  enters  upon  the 
period  of  its  most  complete  development,  but  a  knowledge  of  it 
Fourth  depends  to  a  great  extent  on  literary  sources,  and  on 
century  the  rather  vague  suggestions  which  come  from  the 
painting  Graeco-Roman  work.  The  stelae  recently  discovered 
at  Pagasae  (see  p.  526,  note)  may  add  somewhat  to  our  knowledge. 


PAINTING  AND   MOSAIC  535 

The  vases  of  the  fourth  century  offer  no  such  help  as  the  earlier 
ones  do  in  the  case  of  Polygnotus.1 

The  paintings  of  Apollodorus  of  Athens  (end  of  fifth  century  B.C.) 
appear  to  mark  the  transition  from  the  Polygnotan  art  to  the  freer 
style  of  the  next  century.  He  seems  to  have  been  successful 
in  introducing  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  through  gradation 
of  colors,  and  the  power  to  do  this  of  course  means  that  the  art 
was  passing  out  of  the  stage  of  colored  drawing  into  that  of  real 
painting.  The  easel  picture,  which  involves  a  tendency  to  lay 
more  stress  upon  the  actual  beauty  of  the  work  than  on  the  story 
that  is  told,  is  the  natural  development  of  this  time.  A  long 
line  of  painters  carried  on  their  art  through  the  fourth  and 
third  centuries;  Zeuxis,  Parrhasius,  Timanthes,  Pausias,  Apelles, 
and  Protogenes  are  leading  names,  but  there  are  many  more,  and, 
to  judge  from  the  many  different  places  that  the  artists  came 
from,  there  must  have  been  very  great  interest  in  their  work  all 
over  the  Greek  world.  The  nature  of  the  progress  made  can 
be  understood  only  in  a  general  way,  but  it  is  certain  that  a  high 
point  of  excellence  was  reached.  There  was  much  more  skilful 
use  of  perspective  and  color,  and  technical  processes  were  greatly 
improved.  Painting,  no  doubt,  showed  the  realistic  tendency 
which  was  characteristic  of  the  period,  but  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  this  spirit,  in  the  work  of  the  greater  masters  at 
least,  was  carried  to  excess.  The  spirit  which  dominates  Greek 
art  during  and  after  the  fourth  century  B.C.  showed,  according  to 
the  Greeks  themselves,  "pathos"  rather  than  "ethos"  ;  that  is,  it 
attempted  to  render  more  markedly  the  passing  emotion,  and  did 
not  confine  itself  so  much  to  the  portrayal  of  that  which  would 
suggest  permanent  qualities  of  character.  The  work  of  Polygnotus, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  noted  for  the  portrayal  of  "  ethos." 

1  A  small  number  of  large  lecythi,  with  polychrome  paintings  on  a  white 
ground,  exhibits  gradations  of  colors  and  some  knowledge  of  perspective. 
Their  date  appears  to  be  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  or  the  early  part  of  the 
fourth  century  B.C.,  and  they  probably  reflect  the  progress  made  by  Apollo- 
dorus, his  contemporaries,  or  his  immediate  successors.  See  p.  510,  note  2. 


536  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

Among  the  many  painters  of  the  later  schools  Apelles1  appears 
to  hold  the  highest  place  in  Greek  tradition,  and  the  uniformity 
of  the  praise  accorded  him  is  impressive  testimony  to  its  justice. 
There  were  many  stories  current  about  his  extraordinary  skill, 
and,  as  might  be  expected,  these  touch  generally  upon  technical 
dexterity,  but  he  certainly  must  have  possessed  much  more 
than  this,  and  Lucian's  description  of  his  "Calumny"  shows 
he  was  capable  of  handling  a  large  and  difficult  composition. 
From  many  of  the  subjects  which  he  chose — figures  of  gods  and 
heroes  and  allegorical  figures — it  would  seem  that  he  had  no  lack 
of  imagination.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  loss  of  his  paintings 
and  of  others  by  his  contemporaries  and  successors  has  made  it 
impossible  for  us  to  understand  one  of  the  most  important  phases 
of  Greek  art. 

There  appear  to  have  been  three  methods  of  painting,  all  of 
which  were  in  use  when  the  highest  period  of  development  had 

been  reached.  —  fresco,  tempera,  and  encaustic.    How 
Technique 

far  the  fresco  process  differed  in  detail  from  more 

modern  methods  has  been  a  matter  of  considerable  controversy,2 
but  the  indications  are  that  the  differences  were  considerable.  We 
have  unfortunately  no  remains  of  the  fresco-painting  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  and  therefore  cannot  tell  how  closely  its  technique 
corresponded  to  the  accounts  of  the  process  as  given  by  Pliny 
and  Vitruvius  or  to  that  of  the  paintings  at  Pompeii  and  Rome. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  stucco  for  the  fresco  seems 
to  have  been  prepared  with  the  greatest  possible  care,  by  the 
addition  to  the  first  coating  of  coarse  mortar  of  a  second  and 
third  coating  of  sand  mortar  and  of  mortar  made  with  crushed 
marble.  Thus  the  various  layers  applied  to  the  wall  evidently 
formed  a  much  thicker  mortar  coating  than  is  usual  in 
modern  fresco-painting.  This  would  naturally  dry  slowly,  and 

1  Cp.  J.  Six,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.,  1905,  pp.  169-179. 

2  Cp.  E.  Berger,  Beitrage  zur   Entwickelungsgeschichte  der    Maltechnik, 
passim,  especially  pp.  81-82,  and  for  differing  views,  F.  Gerlach,  Neue  Jahrb. 
fur  das  Klass.  Altertum,  XXI,  1908,  pp.  127-147. 


PAINTING  AND   MOSAIC  537 

the  painter  could  thus  work  more  freely  at  his  whole  composi- 
tion. As  certain  colors  are  not  suited  to  fresco,  the  method  of 
tempera  technique,  involving  the  use  of  a  sticky  medium  like  gum 
or  egg  to  bind  the  color,  was  sometimes  employed  in  a  supplement- 
ary way  in  the  decoration  of  walls.  Easel  pictures  were  painted 
in  tempera  process,  commonly  on  wooden  panels ;  though  the  use 
of  canvas  was  known,  and  in  some  of  the  mummy  portraits  from  the 
Fayum  there  are  examples  of  it  (cp.  Fig.  409).  In  all  probability 
tempera  painting,  though  very  likely  differing  in  some  matters  of 
detail,  was  essentially  similar  to  the  process  used  by  the  painters  of 
western  Europe  before  the  introduction  of  oil  as  a  binding  medium. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  encaustic  technique  is  gathered  chiefly  from 
the  inadequate  statements  of  Pliny,  from  the  late  Fayum  por- 
traits, and  from  the  stelae  of  Pagasae.  Here  the  essential  feature 
was  the  use  of  wax  as  a  binding  medium.  In  hot  countries  like 
Egypt  the  mixture  could  readily  be  kept  in  a  sufficiently  fluid  state 
to  be  applied  with  the  brush ;  in  cooler  countries,  however,  it 
must  have  been  artificially  heated,  or  it  may  possibly  have  been 
softened  by  the  addition  of  oil  or  of  some  such  solvent  as  naphtha. 
How  far  the  so-called  cestrum,  a  kind  of  spatula,  may  have  been 
used  in  this  process  for  the  application  of  the  color,  is  a  matter 
of  dispute.  On  the  Fayum  portraits  the  mark  of  the  brush  is  plain. 
A  good  summary  of  our  knowledge  in  regard  to  these  technical 
processes  is  to  be  found,  s.v.  "  Pictura,"  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of 
Antiquities. 

MOSAICS 

The  art  of  mosaic  (opus  musivum),  since  it  seeks  to  produce 
decorative  and  pictorial  effects  by  the  use  of  colored  stones, 
glazed  earthenware,  and  glass,  is  closely  allied  to  painting,  and 
is  therefore  briefly  mentioned  under  this  head.  Such  work  is  of 
very  early  origin.  It  was  well  known  in  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt, 
and  it  has  been  found  in.  the  palaces  of  the  Mycenaean  chieftains, 
but  evidence  of  its  use  during  the  Greek  classical  period  is  lack- 
ing. The  earliest  specimen  in  Greece  proper  is  probably  that  in 


538  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

the  pronaos  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,1  but  it  is  not 
likely  that  this  is  earlier  than  the  Macedonian  period.  The  re- 
cent excavations  on  the  island  of  Delos  have  brought  to  light  a 
number  of  good  mosaics  in  houses  there,  but  these,  too,  are  Hel- 
lenistic or  Roman.  It  is  thus  from  about  300  B.C.  that  the  use 
of  mosaic  on  a  large  scale  appears,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  it 
was  extensively  employed  in  the  splendid  palaces  and  gardens  of 
great  centres  like  Alexandria  and  Pergamon.  The  simpler  pri- 
vate life  of  earlier  times  did  not  call  for  the  elaborate  decoration 
of  dwellings,  but  as  soon  as  the  great  accumulations  of  wealth 
which  characterized  the  period  of  the  successors  of  Alexander 
made  it  possible  to  gratify  even  the  most  extravagant  taste  for 
luxury,  there  was  naturally  great  demand  for  any  art  which  could 
contribute  to  gorgeous  effects.  The  remains  of  mosaic  from  the 
Hellenistic  period,  so  far  as  dates  are  at  all  sure,  are  not  exten- 
sive, and  literary  authorities  are  few,2  but  the  general  indications 
of  the  growth  of  the  art  are  evident.  We  hear,  for  example,  of 
mosaics  representing  scenes  from  the  Iliad,  which  formed  part 
of  the  adornment  of  the  splendid  ship  that  Hiero  II  of  Syracuse 
sent  to  Ptolemy.  These,  it  has  been  conjectured,  were  very 
likely  copies  of  paintings  by  Theon  of  Samos  (latter  part  of  fourth 
century  B.C.),  who  executed  a  series  of  pictures  representing  epi- 
sodes in  the  Trojan  War. 

The  fact  of  the  great  development  of  mosaic  work  in  later 
Greek  art  is  further  confirmed  by  the  many  fine  specimens  found 
at  Pompeii  and  elsewhere  in  Italy.  Most  of  these  may  properly 

1  See   Olympia,  II,  PL  cv,  and   Baumeister,  Denkmaler,  Fig.  998.     Cp. 
Furtwangler,  Archaeologische  Zeitung,  1879,  p.  153. 

2  Cp.  Overbeck,  Schriftquellen,  Xos.   2158-2161.     Pliny  records  the  name 
of  a  single  artist,  Sosus  of  Pergamon,  who  made  a  famous  mosaic  which  came 
to  be  known  as  the  "  Unswept  House,"  since  it  represented  a  floor  strewn 
with  the  leavings  of  a  banquet.     Such  subjects  for  dining  rooms  seem  later  to 
have  become  common.      I  liny  says  further  that  Sosus  introduced  into  his 
mosaic  a  dove  drinking,  and  that  the  shadow  of  its  head  was  thrown  on  the 
water.     Compare  the  fine  group  of  doves   (one  drinking)  in  the  beautiful 
mosaic  from  Hadrian's  Villa,  now  in  the  Capitoline  Museum. 


PAINTING  AND   MOSAIC  539 

enough  be  classed  as  Roman,  yet  their  relation  to  Greek  art 
is  close,  and  it  is  thought  by  some  that  certain  of  the  earlier  ex- 
amples may  even  be  Greek  work  imported  into  Italy.  The  Greek 
names  of  artists  who  occasionally  sign  their  work  are  significant, 
and  the  Egyptian  subjects  which  are  introduced  on  the  great 
mosaic  at  Praeneste  are  typical  of  the  foreign  character  of  a 
good  deal  of  the  Italian  work. 

Of  all  the  mosaics  which  are  preserved,  the  one  that  throws 
most  light  on  Greek  painting  is  the  well-known  picture  from 
Pompeii  commonly  thought  to  represent  Alexander  and  Darius 
at  the  battle  of  Issus  (Fig.  41 2). l  This  wonderful  work,  which 
measures  5.50  m.  by  2.42  m.,  was  found  in  the  Casa  del  Fauno 
at  Pompeii,  in  1831,  and  is  now  one  of  the  chief  treasures  of  the 
Museum  at  Naples.  Alexander,  mounted  and  without  his  helmet, 
leads  a  charge  against  the  Persian  king.  Darius,  who  is  surrounded 
by  his  horsemen,  is  standing  in  his  chariot,  and  his  charioteer, 
using  the  whip  vigorously,  is  turning  the  horses  for  flight.  Imme- 
diately in  the  foreground  is  a  Persian  who  holds  a  restive  horse. 
The  animal  is  represented  with  bold,  if  not  wholly  successful,  fore- 
shortening. A  Persian  horseman,  who  has  apparently  sought  to 
intercept  the  charge  of  Alexander  upon  the  king,  has  been  thrown 
down ;  his  horse  has  fallen,  and  Alexander's  spear  pierces  his  side. 
Darius,  with  right  hand  outstretched,  and  the  Persian  who  holds 
the  restive  horse,  are  looking  in  consternation  at  this  catastrophe. 
The  attitude  of  Alexander  recalls  the  representation  of  him  on 
the  great  Sidon  sarcophagus  (p.  275).  The  artist  evidently 
wished  to  suggest  the  moment  when  the  rout  of  the  Persians 
becomes  complete,  even  if  we  hesitate  to  accept  the  view  that 
the  scene  represents  the  actual  meeting  of  the  two  kings  as  de- 
scribed in  the  highly  colored  account  of  Quintus  Curtius  (III,  27). 

The  whole  composition  is  full  of  life  and  vigor,  and  it  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  mosaic  is  a  copy  of  some  famous  paint- 

1  F.  Winter,  Das  Alexander  mosaic,  with  plates.  Cp.  G.  Korte  and  E. 
Pernice,  Rom.  Mitt.,  1907,  pp.  1-34.  Korte  thinks  the  scene  depicted  was  at 
the  battle  of  Gaugamela  (Arbela),  and  there  is  much  to  be  said  for  this  view. 


(54°) 


PAINTING  AND   MOSAIC  541 

ing  of  Alexander's  time.  Defects  in  drawing  there  no  doubt 
are,  but  these  may  in  large  measure  be  due  to  the  change  from 
painting  to  mosaic.  Pliny  tells  of  an  admirable  picture  by 
Philoxenus  of  Eretria,  made  for  Cassander,  which  represented  a 
battle  between  Alexander  and  Darius,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
mosaic  is  a  copy  of  this.  There  is  also  another  tradition,  resting 
on  the  doubtful  authority  of  Ptolemaeus  Hephaestion,  that  an 
artist  named  Helena,  daughter  of  Timon,  an  Egyptian,  painted  a 
picture  of  the  battle  of  Issus.  This  is  said  to  have  found  its  way 
to  Rome  in  Vespasian's  time,  and  the  statement  has  been  made  that 
it  was  probably  the  source  of  the  Pompeian  mosaic.  The  mosaic, 
however,  must  be  dated,  on  well-established  archaeological  grounds, 
at  any  rate  before  100  B.C.,  and  the  most  serious  injuries  which  it 
has  suffered  are  probably  due  to  the  earthquake  of  63  A.D.  Thus, 
whatever  the  possible  relation  of  the  mosaic  to  Helena's  picture, 
the  presence  of  the  latter  in  Rome  in  Vespasian's  time  could 
have  no  bearing  on  the  matter.  Probably  it  will  never  be  possible 
to  know  certainly  from  what  particular  painting  the  mosaic  was 
taken,  but  it  remains  none  the  less  the  most  important  visible 
indication  that  we  have  of  the  skill  and  power  to  which  Greek 
painting  attained. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

[Only  the  more  important  books  are  here  mentioned,  and  only  such 
articles  in  periodicals  as  are  of  especial  importance  and  have  appeared 
so  recently  that  their  substance  is  not  yet  (1909)  to  be  found  in  books. 
Further  bibliographical  information  is  contained  in  many  of  the  books 
here  mentioned.  A  serviceable  bibliography  will  be  found  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  X,  1906.  Annual  Supplement,  p.  181. 
An  excellent  bibliography  by  Professor  Michaelis  is  appended  to  the 
seventh  edition  of  Anton  Springer's  Handbuch  der  Kunstgeschichte. 
The  Katalog  der  Bibliothek  des  Kaiserlich  Deutschen  Archaeolo- 
gischen  Instituts  in  Rom,  by  August  Mau  (Rome,  1900,  1902),  is  perhaps 
the  most  exhaustive  archaeological  bibliography  at  present  available.] 

PERIODICALS 

The  chief  periodicals  devoted  entirely  or  in  great  part  to  Greek 
Archaeology  are  :  — 

American  Journal  of  Archaeology  (A.J.A.). 

Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies  (J.H.S.). 

Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens  (B.S.A.). 

Jahrbuch  des  kaiserlich  deutschen  archaologischen  Instituts  {Jahrb. 
d.  hist.). 

Mitteilungen  des  kaiserlich  deutschen  archaologischen  Instituts, 
Athenische  Abteilung  (Ath.  Mitt.),  and  Romische  Abteilung  {Rom. 
Mitt.). 

Jahreshefte  des  oesterreichischen  archaologischen  Instituts. 

Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique  (B.C.H.). 

Revue  arche'ologique  {Rev.  Arch.). 


To  these  should  be  added  three  large  illustrated  publications  appear- 
ing somewhat  irregularly  :  Antike  Denkmaler,  Monurnenti  Antichi,  and 
Monuments  Piot.  The  Antike  Denkmaler  replaced  the  Monumenti 
Inediti  of  the  Istituto  di  corrispondenza  archeologica  in  1885. 

542 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  543 


GENERAL  WORKS 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  1'art  dans  1'antiquitd,  Vol.  VI,  1894 
(La  Grece  primitive  ;  1'art  mycdnien),  Vol.  VII,  1898  (La  Grece  de 
repope"e  ;  la  Grece  archaique,  le  temple),  Vol.  VIII,  1903  (La  Grece 
archa'ique,  la  sculpture)  ;  other  volumes  to  follow. 

A.  Baumeister,  Denkmaler  des  klassischen  Alterthums,  3  vols., 
Munich,  1884-1888. 

Daremberg  and  Saglio,  and  later  E.  Pettier,  Dictionnaire  des  an- 
tiquite*s  grecques  et  romaines,  in  progress,  well  advanced. 

Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  3d  ed.,  London, 
1890. 

Baumgarten,  Poland  and  Wagner,  Die  hellenische  Kultur,  Leipzig, 
2d  ed.,  1907. 

Anton  Springer,  Handbuch  der  Kunstgeschichte,  Vol.  I,  ;th  ed.,  by 
Adolf  Michaelis,  Leipzig,  1904. 

L.  v.  Sybel,  Weltgeschichte  der  Kunst  im  Altertum,  Marburg,  1900. 

F.  B.  Tarbell,  A  History  of  Greek  Art,  Meadville,  1896. 

H.  B.  Walters,  Tne  Art  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,  London,  1906. 

P.  Gardner,  A  Grammar  of  Greek  Art,  London  and  New  York, 
1905. 

M.  Collignon,  L'archdologie  grecque,  Paris,  1907. 

Franz  Winter,  Kunstgeschichte  in  Bildern,  Abteilung  I,  das  Alter- 
tum, Leipzig  and  Berlin,  1900  (an  important  and  relatively  inexpensive 
collection  of  illustrations). 

H.  Brunn,  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Kunstler,  1852.  Reprinted, 
Stuttgart,  1889. 

A.  Furtwangler,  Einfuhrung  in  die  griechische  Kunst,  Deutsche 
Rundschau,  1908,  February  and  March  (two  valuable  articles). 

J.  Overbeck,  Die  antiken  Schriftquellen  zur  Geschichte  der  bildenden 
Kiinste  bei  den  Griechen,  Leipzig,  1868. 

K.  Jex-Blake  and  E.  Sellers,  The  Elder  Pliny's  Chapters  on  the 
History  of  Art,  London,  1896. 

J.  G.  Frazer,  Pausanias's  Description  of  Greece,  6  vols.,  London, 
1898. 

M.  L.  D'Ooge,  The  Acropolis  of  Athens,  New  York  and  London, 
1908. 

The  official  publications  of  excavations,  especially  those  of  Olympia, 
Pergamon,  and  Delphi. 


544  GREEK  ARCHAEOLOGY 

STUDY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  ARCHAEOLOGY 

C.  B.  Stark,  Handbuch  der  Archaologie  der  Kunst,  Erste  Abtheilung, 
Systematik  und  Geschichte  der  Archaologie  der  Kunst,  Leipzig,  1880. 

Karl  Sittl,  Archaeologie  der  Kunst,  Vol.  VI  in  von  Muller's  Hand- 
buch der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft,  Munich,  1895. 

Adolf  Michaehs,  Die  archaologischen  Entdeckungen  des  neunzehnten 
Jahrhunderts,  Leipzig,  1906,  trans,  by  Bettina  Kahnweiler  under  the 
title  "A  Century  of  Archaeological  Discoveries,1'  London,  1908. 

Bruno  Sauer,  Antike  Kunst  (in  Die  Altertumswissenschaft  im  letzten 
Vierteljahrhundert,  by  W.  Kroll),  Jahresberichte  liber  die  Fortschtitte  der 
classischen  Altertumswissenschaft,  Supplementband  124,  Leipzig,  1905. 

Adolf  Michaelis,  Ancient  Marbles  in  Great  Britain,  trans,  by  C.  A. 
M.  Fennell,  Cambridge,  1882. 

Adolf  Michaelis,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Archaologischen  Instituts 
(1829-1879),  Berlin,  1879. 

De  Laborde,  Athenes  aux  XVe,  XVIe  et  XVII6  siecles,  Paris,  1854. 

Henri  Omont,  Athenes  au  XVIIe  siecle  (Drawings  of  the  Parthenon 
and  views  of  Athens),  Paris,  1898. 

PREHELLENIC  GREECE 

Tsountas  and  Manatt,  The  Mycenaean  Age,  Boston,  1897. 

C.  Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's  Ausgrabungen  (Schliemann's  Excava- 
tions), trans,  by  E.  Sellers,  London  and  New  York,  1891. 

W.  Dorpfeld,  Troja  und  Ilion,  Athens,  1901. 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies,  Phylakopi,  London, 
1904. 

Ronald  M.  Burrows,  The  Discoveries  in  Crete,  London,  1907. 

A.  Mosso,  Palaces  of  Crete  and  their  Builders,  London,  1907. 

Harriet  Boyd  Hawes,  Gournia,  Vasiliki,  and  other  Prehistoric  Sites 
on  the  Isthmus  of  Hierapetra,  Crete,  Philadelphia,  1909. 

Pere  M.  J.  Lagrange,  La  Crete  ancienne,  Paris,  1908. 

G.  Maraghiannis,  Antiquites  cretoises,  Ie  se"rie.  Plates  with  brief 
text  by  L.  Pernier  and  G.  Karo,  Candia,  1907. 

Reports  on  the  discoveries  in  Crete,  by  A.  J.  Evans  and  others,  are 
published  in  the  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  Vol.  VI 
(1899-1900)  and  following,  by  F.  Halbherr,  L.  Pernier,  and  others  in 
Monumenti  Antichi,  VI,  1896,  and  following. 


545 


fi..  Marquand,  Greek  Architecture,  New  York  and  London,  1909. 

Anderson  and  Spier,  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome,  London  and 
New  York,  1903. 

Russell  Sturgis,  History  of  Architecture,  Vol.  I,  New  York,  1906. 

J.  Durm,  Die  Baukunst  der  Griechen  (Handbuch  der  Architectur, 
II,  i),  2d  ed.,  Darmstadt,  1892. 

Borrmann  and  Neuwirth,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  I,  Altertum  (by 
R.  Borrmann),  Leipzig,  1904. 

A.  Choisy,  Histoire  de  Parch itecture,  Vol.  I,  Paris,  1898. 

D'Espouy,  Fragments  d'architecture  antique,  Paris,  no  date. 

Koldewey  and  Puchstein,  Griechische  Tempel  in  Unteritalien  und 
Sicilien,  Berlin,  1899. 

F.  C.  Penrose,  Principles  of  Athenian  Architecture,  London,  2d  ed., 
1888. 

Adolf  Michaelis,  Der  Parthenon,  Leipzig,  1871. 

SCULPTURE 

E.  A.  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  London  and  New 
York,  1896,  2d  ed.,  1906. 

M.  Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  sculpture  grecque,  Paris,  1892,  1897. 
.  J.  Overbeck,  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Plastik,  4th  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1893,  1894. 

R.  Kekule  v.  Stradonitz,  Die  griechische  Skulptur,  Berlin,  1907. 

A.  S.  Murray,  History  of  Greek  Sculpture,  2d  ed.,  London,  1890. 

Lucy  M.  Mitchell,  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture,  New  York,  1883. 

E.  v.  Mach,  A  Handbook  of  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture  (to  ac- 
company a  collection  of  reproductions  of  Greek  and  Roman  sculpture, 
the  University  Prints),  Boston,  1905. 

W.  Lermann,  Altgriechische  Plastik,  Munich,  1907. 

A.  Furtwangler,  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture,  edited  by  E. 
Sellers,  London  and  New  York,  1895. 

Catalogues  of  Museums,  especially  Friederichs-Wolters,  Gipsabgiisse 
antiker  Bildwerke,  Berlin,  1885. 

S.  Reinach,  Repertoire  de  la  statuaire  grecque  et  romaine,  Paris, 
1897-1904  (containing  a  vast  number  of  small  drawings  of  ancient  works 
of  sculpture).  Vols.  II  and  III  contain  valuable  bibliographical  lists. 

GREEK   ARCH. 35 


546  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

H.  Stuart  Tones.  SpJect  passages  from  ancient  authors  illustrative  of 
the  history  of  Greek  Sculpture,  L.OUUOU,  1^93. 

H.  Brunn  and  P.  Arndt  (Brunn-Bruckmann),  Denkmaler  griechischer 
und  romischer  Sculptur  (a  series  of  large  and  expensive  carbon  repro- 
ductions, accompanied,  after  No.  500,  by  discussions),  Munich,  1888-. 

P.  Arndt  and  W.  Amelung,  Photographische  Einzelaufnahmen  an- 
tiker  Sculpturen,  nach  Auswahl  und  mit  Text,  Munich,  1893-. 

Special  subjects  are  treated  in  the  following  monographs  and  articles  : 
A.  S.  Murray,  The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  London,  1903  ;  A. 
Michaelis,  Der  Parthenon,  Leipzig,  1871  ;  H.  Lechat,  La  sculpture 
attique  avant  Phidias,  Paris,  1904  ;  H.  Lechat,  Pythagoras  de  Rhegion, 
Paris,  1905  ;  W.  Klein,  Praxiteles,  Leipzig,  1898  ;  P.  Gardner,  The 
Apoxyomenos  of  Lysippus,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  XXV,  1905, 
pp.  234-259  ;  Ida  Carlton  Thallon,  The  Date  of  Damophon,  American 
Journal  of  Archaeology,  X,  1906,  pp.  302-329  ;  G.  Dickins.  Damophon 
of  Messene,  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  XII,  1907,  pp. 
109-136,  and  XIII,  pp.  357-404:  E.  Reisch,  Kalamis,  Jahreshefte  des 
Oesterreichischen  archaic!  ogischen  Institute,  IX,  1906,  pp.  199-268; 
F.  Studniczka,  Kalamis,  Leipzig,  1907. 

TERRACOTTAS 

H.  B.  Walters,  Catalogue  of  the  Terracottas  in  the  Department  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  in  the  British  Museum,  London,  1903. 

E.  Pettier,   Les   statuettes    de    terre    cuite    dans  1'antiquite,   Paris, 
1890. 

C.  A.  Hutton,  Greek  Terra-cotta  Statuettes,  London  and  New  York, 
1899. 

M.  B.  Huish,  Greek  Terra-cotta  Statuettes,  London  and  New 
York,  1900. 

F.  Winter,  Die  Typen  der  figiirlichen  Terrakotten,  Berlin  and  Stutt- 
gart, 1903.     (Two  folio  volumes.) 

R.  Kekuld,  Griechische  Thonfiguren  aus  Tanagra,  Stuttgart,  1878. 

R.  Kekule",  Die  Terracotten  von  Sicilien,  Stuttgart,  1884. 

Pettier  and  Reinach,  La  ne*cropole  de  Myrina,  Paris.  1887.  (Two 
large  volumes.) 

Pottier  and  Reinach,  Terres  cuites  de  Myrina,  Paris.  1886. 

L.  Heuzey,  Les  figurines  antiques  de  terre  cuite  du  muse'e  du 
Louvre,  Paris,  1883. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  547 

W.  Deonna,  Les  statues  de  terre  cuite  dans  1'antiquite  :  Sicile,  Grande 
Grece,  Etrurie  et  Rome,  Paris,  1908. 
Catalogues  of  Museums. 

COINS 

E.  Babelon,  Traite  des  monnaies  grecques  et  romaines,  Vol.  I,  1904, 
Vols.  II  and  III  (plates),  1907,  Paris. 

B.  V.  Head,  Historia  Numorum,  A  Manual  of  Greek  Numismatics, 
Oxford,  1887. 

P.  Gardner,  The  Types  of  Greek  Coins,  Cambridge,  1883. 

B.  V.  Head,  Coins  of  the  Ancients,  London,  4th  ed.,  1895. 

G.  F.  Hill,  Handbook  of  Greek  and  Roman  Coins,  London,  1899. 
G.  F.  Hill,  Historical  Greek  Coins,  London,  1906. 
George   Macdonald,   Coin   Types,   their  Origin  and  Development, 
Glasgow,  1906. 

J.  Ward,  Greek  Coins  and  their  Parent  Cities,  London,  1902. 
The  catalogues  of  the  Greek  coins  in  the  British  Museum. 

GEMS 

A.  Furtwangler,  Die  antiken  Gemmen.  Geschichte  der  Stein- 
schneidekunst  im  klassischen  Altertum.  Leipzig,  1900.  (The  most 
complete  and  authoritative  work  on  the  subject.  Three  vols.,  4to.) 

C.  W.  King,  The  Natural  History,  Ancient  and  Modern,  of  Precious 
Stones  and  Gems  and  of  Precious  Metals,  London,  1865. 

C.  W.  King,  Antique  Gems  and  Rings,  London,  1872. 

J.  Henry  Middleton,  The  Engraved  Gems  of  Classical  Times,  with  a 
Catalogue  of  the  Gems  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge,  1891. 

British  Museum,  Catalogue  of  Engraved  Gems,  by  A.  S.  Murray, 
revised  by  A.  H.  Smith. 

BRONZES,  -METAL  WORK,  AND  JEWELRY 

H.  B.  Walters,  Catalogue  of  the  Bronzes  in  the  British  Museum, 
London,  1899. 

E.  Babelon  and  A.  Blanchet,  Catalogue  des  bronzes  antiques  de  la 
Bibliotheque  nationale,  Paris,  1895. 

A.  de  Ridder,  Catalogue  des  bronzes  trouve's  sur  TAcropole  d1  Athenes, 
Paris,  1896. 


548  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

A.  de  Ridder,  Catalogue  des  bronzes  de  la  Socie'te*  Arche*ologique 
d'Athenes,  Paris,  1894. 

A.  de  Ridder,  De  ectypis  quibusdam  aeneis  quae  falso  vocantur 
"  Argivo-Corinthiaca,"  Paris,  1896. 

Theodor  Schreiber,  Alexandrinische  Toreutik,  Leipzig,  1894. 

A.  Furtwangler,  Der  Goldfund  von  Vettersfelde,  Berlin,  1883. 

Antiquite's  du  Bosphore  cimmerien  (1854),  reedited  by  S.  Reinach 
(Bibliotheque  des  monuments  figures,  Vol.  Ill),  Paris,  1892. 

A.  HeVon  de  Villefosse,  Le  tre'sor  de  Boscoreale.  Monuments  Piot, 
IV,  Paris,  1899. 

E.  Pernice  and  F.  Winter,  Der  Hildesheimer  Silberfund,  Berlin,  1902. 

Kondakof,  Tolstoi,  and  S.  Reinach,  Antiquite's  de  la  Russia  me"ridi- 
onale,  Paris,  1892. 

H.  de  Fontenay,  Bijoux  anciens  et  modernes,  Paris,  1887. 

E.  Vernier,  La  bijouterie  et  la  joaillerie,  Cairo,  1907. 

VASES 

[Detailed  bibliographical  information  will  be  found  in  the  notes  to  the 
chapter  on  Vases.  Only  a  selection  from  the  more  important  general 
works  is  given  here,  with  the  addition  of  a  few  more  special  studies  not 
mentioned  in  the  notes.] 

H.  Bllimner,  Technologie  und  Terminologie  der  Gewerbe  und 
Kiinste  bei  den  Griechen  und  Rb'mern,  4  vols.,  Vol.  II  on  pottery,  Leip- 
zig, 1875-1886.  Somewhat  out  of  date,  but  valuable. 

Catalogues  of  vases:  British  Museum,  Vol.  II,  1893  (Walters),  Vol. 
Ill,  1896  (C.  Smith),  Vol.  IV,  1896  (Walters),  Vol.  I  (in  preparation)  ; 
Louvre,  3  vols.,  1896-1906,  with  atlas  of  photographic  plates,  2  vols. 
(Pottier),  very  important  as  a  general  treatise  ;  Bibliotheque  nationale, 
vases  in  the  Cabinet  des  Me'dailles,  1901-1902  (A.  de  Ridder)  ;  Berlin 
Museum,  2  vols.,  1885  (Furtwangler)  ;  Oesterreiches  Museum  fur  Kunst 
und  Industrie,  Vienna,  1892  (Masner)  ;  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford, 
1893  (P.  Gardner). 

Furtwangler  und  Reichhold,  Die  griechische  Vasenmalerei,  Munich, 
1900-,  plates  and  text,  the  latter  containing  much  bibliographical  in- 
formation and  valuable  technical  observations.  Indispensable. 

Hartwig,  Die  griechischen  Meisterschalen  des  strengen  rothfigurigen 
Stils,  Stuttgart,  1893,  with  atlas.  Indispensable  for  the  study  of  this 
class  of  vases,  and  generally  very  valuable. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  549 

W.  Klein,  Die  griechischen  Vasen  mit  Meisterslgnaturen,  2d  ed., 
Vienna,  1887  ;  Diegriech.  Vasen  mit  Lieblingsinschriften.2ded.,  Vienna, 
1898;  Euphronios,  Eine  Studie  zur  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Mal- 
erei,  2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1886. 

P.  Kretschmer,  Die  griechischen  Vaseninschriften  ihrer  Sprache  nach 
untersucht,  Giitersloh,  1894. 

Rayet  and  Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  ceramique  grecque,  Paris,  1888. 
Somewhat  out  of  date,  but  useful  as  a  general  survey. 

S.  Reinach,  Repertoire  des  vases  peints,  Paris,  1899-1900,  2  vols. 
Invaluable,  and  containing  much  bibliographical  information. 

H.  B.  Walters,  History  of  Ancient  Pottery,  London,  1905,  2  vols. 
The  most  useful  single  general  work  on  vases. 

E.  Pettier,  Douris  and  the  Painters  of  Greek  Vases.  Translated  by 
Bettina  Kahnweiler,  London,  1909. 

Special  Studies  not  mentioned  in  the  Notes 

Gisela  M.  A.  Richter,  The  Distribution  of  Vases,  B.S.A.  XI  (1904- 
1905),  pp.  224-242  ;  L.  Pallat,  Ath.  Mitt.  XXII  (1897),  pp.  265  ff. ;  L. 
Couve,  Rev.  Arch.,  1898,  pp.  213-234  (the  last  two  for  Proto-Corin- 
thian)  ;  L.  Kjellberg,  Klazomenische  Sarkophage,  Jahrb.  d.  Inst.  19 
(1904),  pp.  151  ff.,  20  (1905),  pp.  188  ff. ;  C.  Watzinger,  Griechische 
Holzsarkophage,  Leipzig  (Heinrichs),  New  York  (Stechert),  1905  ;  F. 
B.  Tarbell,  The  direction  of  writing  on  Attic  Vases,  Studies  in  Class. 
Philol.  Univ.  of  Chicago,  1895. 


PAINTING  AND  MOSAIC 

Woltmann  and  Woermann,  History  of  Painting  (English  transla- 
tion, edited  by  Sidney  Colvln,  London  and  New  York,  1889,  Vol.  I, 
Book  II). 

P.  Girard,  La  peinture  antique  (Bibliotheque  de  renseignement  des 
beaux-arts),  Paris,  no  date. 

W.  Helbig.  Wandgemalde  der  von  Vesuv  verschiitteten  Sta'dte  Cam- 
paniens,  Leipzig,  1868. 

W.  Helbig,  Untersuchungen  iiber  die  campanische  Wandmalerei. 
Leipzig,  1873. 

P.  Gauckler,  article  Musivum  opus,  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio, 
Dictionnaire  des  antiquite's  (also  separately,  La  mosaiique  antique), 
Paris,  1904. 


550  GREEK   ARCHAEOLOGY 

Gerspach,  La  mosaiquc  (Bibliotheque  de  1'enseignement  des  beaux- 
arts),  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1893. 

E.  Berger,  Beitrage  zur  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Maltechnik,  i 
und  2  Folge,  Die  Maltechnik  des  Alterthums,  Munich,  1904. 

Arvanitopoulos, 'E<£.  'Ap^.,  1908,  pp.  I  ff.,an  article  on  painted  stelae 
from  Pagasae,  with  exhaustive  bibliography  on  painting  in  the  notes. 

P.  Hermann,  Denkmaler  der  Malerei,  Munich  (in  progress). 

(For  GLASS,  see  p.  419,  note.) 


INDEX 


Abacus,  Corinthian,  130;  Doric,  115;  Ionic, 
126. 

Abraxas  gems,  411. 

Accademia  dei  Lincei,  26. 

Achaean  League,  coinage,  364  f.,  379. 

Acrolithic  statues,  197. 

Acropolis,  Athens,  25,  29,  32,  34,  145. 

Acroteria,  121,  174. 

Adler,  27. 

Aegean,  term  applied  to  early  civilization,  40. 

Aegjna,  17,  23,  29,  87,  135,  140,  214  ff.,  221. 

Aeginetan,  coins,  367;  standard,  356. 

Aespn,  vase-painter,  502. 

Africa,  vases,  463  ff.,  470. 

Agathopus,  gem  engraver,  401. 

Agesander,  Rhodian  sculptor,  287. 

Agias,  statue  by  Lysippus,  269  f. 

Agora,  see  Market  places. 

Agoracritus,  sculptor,  237. 

Alcamenes,  sculptor,  226  f.,  236  f.,  290. 

Alexander,  on  coins,  362,  376  f.;  on  gems, 
399;  mosaic,  22,  539  f.;  portraits  by 
Lysippus,  271  f.;  sarcophagus,  275,  539; 
times  of,  25. 

Alexandria,  180,  276,  281  f.,  312;  apartment 
houses,  191;  mosaics,  538;  museum,  163; 
pharos,  184;  Serapeum,  153,  179;  sym- 
bolic figure  on  patera,  337  f.;  work  in  gold 
and  silver,  336. 

Amasis,  vase-painter,  478  ff.,  487. 

Amazon,  of  Polyclitus,  233,  235,  236. 

American  School,  at  Athens,  25,  29,  30;  in 
Rome,  25. 

Amorgos,  40.  43. 

Amphion,  of  Cnossus,  sculptor,  220. 

Anathyrosis,  102,  108. 

Andocides,  vase-painter,  489. 

Angell,  Samuel,  17. 

Anta,  59,  119,  122,  123,  128. 

Antefixes,  121. 

Antenor,  sculptor,  205  f.,  217,  530. . 

Anticythera,  see  Cerigotto. 

Antioch,  180;  houses,  191. 

Apelles,  painter,  528,  535,  536. 

Aphaia,  temple  at  Aegina,  17,  23,  29,  135,  140, 
215  f. 

Aphrodite,  Capitoline,  289;  of  Capua,  280; 
of  Cnidus,  259  f.,  333,  363;  in  the  gardens, 
290;  Medicean,  272  note,  289;  of  Melos, 
18,  280  f.,  292;  Venus  Genetrix,  290. 

Apollo,  Belvedere,  279,  285;  "Choiseul- 
Gouffier"  type,  219;  early  type,  199;  of 
Melos,  199;  of  Orchomenus,  199;  Phile- 
sius  by  Canachus,  214,  217,  331  f.;  Ptoios, 


31;   of  Tenea,  18,  33,  199  f.,  214,  216;  of 

Thera,  199. 

Apollodprus,  Athenian  painter,  535. 
Apollonius,  gem  engraver,  401;  sculptor  from 

Tralles,  289. 

Apoxyomenus,  by  Lysippus,  268  ff. 
Apulian  vases,  513,  515  ff. 
Arcesilaus,  sculptor  of  Venus  Genetrix,  200. 
Arch,  54,  55,  61,  181. 
Archaeological  Institute,  of  America,  19,  25, 

29;    Austrian,  25;    Imperial  German,  ai, 

25,  35.  36- 

Archaeology,  definition,  n;    a  science,  37. 
Archaic,  sculpture,  23,  198-217;  architecture, 

108-110;   gems,  384-388;    terracottas,  302. 
Archermus,  30,  209  f.,  327. 
Architecture:  96-192;  materials  and  methods, 

96-108;   archaic,  108-110;    Mycenaean,  56 

ff.;  orders,  110^-133  (Doric,  113-124;  Ionic, 

124-129;     Corinthian,    129-133);     temple, 

133-158;     civic,    158-173;     funeral    and 

votive,  173-179;    Hellenistic,  179-192. 
Architrave,  115. 

Aregon,  Corinthian  painter,  530. 
Argive  Heraeum,  29,  236,  294,  297,  316. 
Argive  sculpture,  214,  236. 
Argos,  centre  of  art  in  sixth  century,  214,  215; 

in  fifth  century,  221. 
Aridices,  Corinthian  painter,  530. 
Aristion,  stele,  207  f.,  493. 
Aristophanes,  vase-painter,  434,  501. 
Arretine  pottery,  519,  523,  524  f. 
Artemis,  of  Versailles,  279;    temple  at  Ephe- 

sus,  20,  23,  142  f.,  151  f.,  211  f.,  265  f.; 

temple  at  Magnesia,  153. 
Artemisia,  statue  of,  179,  263,  264. 
Arundel,  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of,  12. 
Asia  Minor,  19,  20,  23,  34,  282  ff.;   theatres, 

170  f. 

Aspasius,  gem  engraver,  408. 
Assos,  19,  29,  139,  170;    bouleuterion,  187; 

market  place,  187  f.;   stoa,  186. 
Assteas,  vase-painter,  513. 
Assyria,  23. 

Athanadorus,  Rhodian  sculptor,  287. 
Athena,  Alea,  temple  at  Tegea,  31,  151,  253, 

254;     Lemnia,  233;     Mycenaean  (?),    84; 

Nike,   temple,    18,   246,   (balustrade)   231, 

247,  253;  old  temple  at  Athens,  139,  203  f., 

206  f. ;    Parthenos,  147,  230,  232  f.,  349  f., 

408;  Promachus,  232. 
Athenian  coins,  363,  367  f.,  370  f. 
Athenion,  cameo  cutter,  397,  401. 
Athenis,  209. 


SSI 


552 


INDEX 


Athens,  in  the  fifth  century,  144,  217;  in 
Hellenistic  times,  180  f.;  fortifications,  172 
f.;  odeum  of  Herodes,  170;  primitive  pot- 
tery, 41;  private  houses,  189;  stadium, 
164  f.;  stoa  of  Attalus,  185;  stoa  of  Eu- 
menes,  170;  terracottas,  295,  302,  303; 
theatre,  170;  vases,  21,  34,  471-512;  work 
in  gold,  336.  See  Acropolis. 

Attic,  gold  work,  336;  sculpture  (early,  202- 
209;  in  fifth  century,  217-219;  influence 
in  Asia  Minor,  249,  250));  vases,  471-512 
(see  Dipylon;  Proto-Attic,  471  ff.;  black- 
figured,  473-484;  red-ligured,  484-506; 
with  white  background,  506-512). 

Babylonia,  23,  39,  83. 

Bacon,  F.  H.,  29. 

Base,  Attic,  124;  Ionic,  124. 

Bassae,  see  Phigaleia. 

Bathycles,  of  Magnesia,  made  throne  at 
Amyclae,  456. 

Beginnings  of  Greek  sculpture,  193  f. 

Belvedere,  Apollo,  279;  Torso,  290. 

Benndorf,  27. 

Bernay,  silver  vases,  337,  525- 

Black-figured  vases,  426  ff.  (technique),  473- 
484. 

Blouet,  1 8. 

Boehlau,  3_4- 

Boeotia,  pithoi  with  reliefs,  519  f. 

Bofthus,  cameo  cutter,  397,  401;  of  Chalce- 
don,  sculptor,  281. 

Boscoreale,  silverware,  337-340,  525. 

Boularchus,  Ionic  painter,  456,  529. 

Bouleuterion,  at  Miletus,  160,  179;  at  Olym- 
pia,  158;  at  Priene,  160;  at  Assos,  187. 

Boyd,  Miss  (Mrs.  Hawes),  36. 

Bracelets,  351  f. 

Braun,  Emil,  21. 

Brick,  97. 

British  Museum,  14,  17,  19,  24. 

British  School,  at  Athens,  25,  32,  36,  41;  at 
Rome,  25. 

Bronze,  42,  43,  323;  in  sculpture,  196  f. ; 
mirrors,  328  ff.;  reliefs,  early,  324  ff.;  re- 
liefs, various,  327  ff.;  statuettes,  330-333. 

Bronze-casting,  197. 

Brooches,  324,  348  f. 

Brunn,  Heinrich,  21,  25.  ^^ 

Bryaxis,  sculptor,  262,  263. 

Brygus,  vase-painter,  485,  486,  492,  404,  495, 
497-490. 

Building  inscriptions,  06. 

Bupalus,  209. 

Busts,  terracotta,  303. 

Cabirium,  near  Thebes,  terracottas,  303. 

Caeretan  hydriae,  454,  465,  468  ff. 

Calamis,  sculptor,  218  f.,  221,  232. 

Calenian  phialae,  519,  523. 

Callicrates,  145. 

Cameos,  394  ff. 

Camirus,   terracottas,   303;     Fikellura  vases, 

458.     . 

Campaman  vases,  513,  514  f. 
Canachus,  sculptor,  214,  217,  331  f. 


Canning,  Sir  Stratford,  19. 

Canosa,  terracottas,  319. 

Capital,  Aeolic  type,  125;  Corinthian,  130, 
132;  Doric,  114,  122;  Ionic,  125;  of  Doric 
anta,  119,  122  f. 

Capua,  terracottas,  319. 

Caria,  27. 

Caricatures,  in  bronze,  331 ;  in  terracotta,  319. 

Carrey,  Jacques,  14,  241. 

Carthage,  gems,  387. 

Caryatides,  133,  150,  154,  248. 

Cayallari,  18. 

Ceiiing,  of  Doric  buildings,  118  f. 

Cella,  of  temple,  133. 

Centuries,  sixteenth  and  seventeenth,  12; 
eighteenth,  13  ff. 

Cephisodotus,  252. 

Cerigotto  (Anticythera),  32,  267. 

Chachrylion,  vase-painter,  489. 

Chaerestratus,  277. 

Chalcidian,  vases  of  sixth  century,  454. 

Chalcis,  suggested  as  original  home  of  Proto- 
Corinthian  style,  453. 

Chandler,  Richard,  15. 

Charinus,  Athenian  potter,  521. 

Charioteer  from  Delphi,  219  f. 

Charmidas,  early  painter,  530. 

Chian  sculpture,  30,  205,  209  ff. 

Choiseul  Gouffier,  :6;  Apollo,  219. 

Chronology,  Prehellenic,  92  ff.     See  Dating. 

Chryse'ephantine  sculpture,  197. 

Cimon,  of  Cleonae,  painter,  his  influence  seen 
in  vase-paintings  of  the  "severe  style,"  530. 

Clavs  used  in  vase-making,  420. 

Clazomenae  (sarcophagi),  34,  435,  454,  461 
ff.,  465,  484,  526,  529;  (Caeretan  hydriae), 
470. 

Cleanthes,  Corinthian  painter,  530. 

Clitias,  painter  of  Francois  vase,  476. 

Cnidians,  lesche  of,  166,  531  ff.;  treasury  of, 
132,  133,  154,  212  f.,  246. 

Cnidus,  19,  20;  heroum  of  Antigonus,  174; 
Demeter,  20,  253. 

Cnossus,  36,  39,  40,  43-95.  Passim;  295. 

Cockerell,  15,  17. 

Coins,  n,  23,  353-380;  importance,  353; 
metals  used,  354  f. ;  process,  355;  shapes 
and  designs.  3°;  5  f.;  standards,  356  f.; 
divisions,  3^7  f.;  units  and  rate  of  ex- 
change, 358  f.;  tvr>es,  360  ff.:  inscriptions 
and  symbo's.  363  ff. ;  periods  of  develop- 
ment, 365  ff. ;  Italian  fabric,  368  f. 

Color,  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  18;  in 
architecture,  122,  132;  in  sculpture,  106; 
on  terracotta  tablet,  526;  on  terracottas, 
300,  300;  on  vases,  39,  428  f.,  448.452  f., 
457,  463,  467.  469,  478,  507,  51°,  514.  5i6- 

Column,  59,  60,  61,  63,  64,  65,  112;  Doric, 
113,  122;  Ionic,  124  f. 

Conso'es,  130. 

Contour-stripe,  in  vase-painting,  433. 

Conze,  A'exander,  26,  33,  36. 

Conies  of  statues  on  coins,  361,  362,  363. 

Corinth,  30;  earlv  painters,  4=50,  520;  stoa, 
184;  temple  of  Apollo,  139.  See  Corinthian. 

Corinthian,     coins,     367;      order,     129-133; 


INDEX 


553 


pinaces,  422  ff.,  526;  terracottas,  302,  317; 
vases,  442  if.,  447-453,  455,  457. 

Corneto,  alabaster  sarcophagus,  527. 

Cornice,  Corinthian,  130  f.;  Doric,  115; 
with  terracotta  sheathing,  116  f.;  Ionic, 
128. 

Cos,  29. 

Costume,  Mycenaean,  66. 

Cramps,  106  f. 

Craton,  Sicyonian  painter,  530. 

Crepidoma,  112. 

Cresilas,  236,  237. 

Crete,  36,  39,  40,  43-95,  passim;  Chro- 
nology, 92-95;  palaces,  45,  56  ff.  *> 

Crimea,  22;  gold  work,  334  f.;  bracelets, 
351  f.;  terracottas,  303,  320,  336,  343; 
vases,  504  f. 

Critius,  sculptor,  23,  217,  231,  258. 

Croesus,  211. 

Curtius,  Ernst,  27. 

Cuttings,  for  cramps,  106  f.;  for  dowels, 
104  f.;  for  hoisting,  99;  for  prying,  103; 
for  shifting,  104. 

Cyclades,  40,  41,  43,  44,  51,  93. 

Cycladic,  40,  43,  93. 

Cylindrical  figure  vases,  301. 

Cyprus,  35,  41,  44,  91,  294,  295,  301  (terra- 
cottas from  Attic  moulds),  317  (terracottas), 
519  (plastic  vases). 

Cvrenaica,  35. 

Cyrene.  terracottas,  310,  319  f.;  vases,  454, 
463  467  ff. 

Cvriacus  of  Ancona,  n. 

Cythera,  bronze  statue,  see  Cerigotto. 

Daedalus,  209;  son  of  Patrocles,  267;  gem 
cutter,  401. 

Damophon,  sculptor,  31,  286  f. 

Daphnae  (Egypt),  34,  454,  463,  464,  465. 

Daric,  375  f. 

Dating,  of  gems,  393;  of  jewelry,  343;  of 
necklaces,  345  f.;  of  Proto-Corinthian 
vases,  447;  of  black-figured  vases,  473;  of 
red-figured  vases,  484  f.,  488;  of  vases  with 
white  background,  506,  507,  508,  510,  517 
f.;  of  pithos  with  reliefs,  520;  of  vases  with 
reliefs,  522. 

Decoration,  of  houses,  191  f.;  of  vases,  426  ff. 

Decorative  sculpture,  198. 

Delos,  30;  frescoes  and  mosaics,  526,  note, 
538;  houses,  189  ff.;  Nike  of  Archermus 
(?),  209;  statue  dedicated  by  Nicandra, 
200:  theatre,  168. 

Delphi,  24,  25,  30,  142,  154,  212;  statues 
dedicated  by  Daochus,  269;  paintings  by 
Polvpcnqtus,  531  ff.  See  Cnidians. 

Demareteia,  Syracusan  coins,  371  f. 

Demeter  of  Cnidus,  20,  253. 

Demosthenes,  statue  of,  277. 

Dentels,  127,  128. 

Derrick,  99. 

Dexamenus,  gem  engraver,  300-392. 

Dexileos,  monument  of,  272  f. 

Diadems,  73,  343  f. 

Diadumenus  of  Pplyclitus,  233,  234. 

Diana,  see  Artemis. 


Diazoma,  166,  168,  169. 

Didyma,  see  Miletus. 

Dilettanti,  Society  of,  15,  16. 

Dimias,  early  painter,  530. 

Djmini,  39,  61. 

Dioscurides,  gem  engraver,  407. 

Dipoenus,  early  sculptor,  209. 

Dipylon   at   Athens,    173,    174;     vases,   437, 

439  ff-,  461    47i- 

Dodona,  early  work  in  metal,  442. 
Dodwell,  19,  441. 
Dorpfeld,  27,  29,  35. 
Donaldson,  15. 

*T)orian  Invasion,  24,  27,  38,  40,  109,  441. 
Doric  art,  217. 

Doryphorus  of  Polyclitus,  233,  234,  235,  236. 
Dowels,  104-106. 
Drachma,  357. 
Dubois,  18. 

Duris,  vase-painter,  485,  492,  494  f. 
Dying  Gaul,  12,  283. 

Earrings,  347  f. 

Echinus,  Doric,  114;  Ionic,  126. 

Eckhel,  Joseph  Hilarius  von,  14. 

Ecphantus,  Corinthian  painter,  530. 

Egnatia,  terracottas,  319. 

Egypt,  23,  39,  53,  69,  83,  84,  91,  92,  93; 
chronology,  95;  gems,  381,  382;  influence 
in  Geometric  style,  441;  mosaics,  537. 

Electrum,  354. 

Eleusjnian  relief,  250. 

Eleusis,  31;  propylaea,  157;  telesterion,  158 
f. ;  terracottas,  295,  303. 

Elgin,  Thomas  Bruce,  Lord  E.,  16;  Elgin 
Marbles,  17,  23. 

Entablature,  Doric,  115;  Ionic,  127  f.;  Corin- 
thian, 130. 

Entasis,  113,  124. 

Epliesus,  24,  27,  29,  in,  142  (temple  of  sixth 
century),  143,  144,  note  (Hogarth's  excava- 
tions), 151  f.  (temple  of  fourth  century), 
172  (theatre),  180,  209,  211  f.  (sculpture 
of  early  temple),  265  (sculpture  of  later 
tempie),  267  (bronze  statue),  276,  456,  470 
(sculpture  of  early  temple). 

Epictetus,  vase-painter,  485,  487,  489-491, 
507. 

Epiclaurus,  25,  31;  gymnasium,  163;  round 
buifding  (tholos),  154  f.;  stadium,  165; 
theatre,  168  ff. 

Epimenes,  gem  cutter,  384. 

Epistvlion,  115. 

Erechtheum,  127,  128,  134, 148-150,  213, 247  f. 

Eretria,  30,  35;  terracottas,  303,  317  f.; 
theatre,  165,  167. 

Ergotimus,  potter  of  Francois  vase,  476. 

Eros,  by  Praxiteles,  260  f. 

Esquiline,  discovery  of  paintings,  22. 

Etruria,  13,  319  (terracottas),  384  f.  (metal 
rings),  402  f.  (scarabs),  519  (bucchero  ware). 

Etruscan,  ash-urns,  21;  bronzes,  327; 
jewelry,  342;  mirrors,  21,  329  f.;  paint- 
ings, 20,  23,  527;  rings  of  metal,  384  f.; 
scarabs,  402  f.;  tombs,  20,  23,  527. 

Eubouleus,  head  from  Eleusis,  279. 


554 


INDEX 


Eucheir,  Corinthian  painter,  450,  530. 
Eugrammus,  Corinthian  painter,  450,  530. 
Eumarus,  early  Attic  painter,  530. 
Euphranpr,  sculptor  and  painter,  262. 
Euphronius,  vase-painter,  485,  487,  492-494, 

495,  508,  note. 

Euthydicus,  statue  dedicated  by,  208. 
Euthymides,  vase-painter,  492,  494. 
Eutychides,  pupil  of  Lysippus,  279. 
Eutychus,  gem  engraver,  407. 
Evaenetus,  artist  of  coins,  364,  390. 
Evans,  Arthur  J.,  36,  95. 
Exchange,  rate  of,  358  f. 
Execias,  vase-painter,  478,  480  ff.,  487.- 
Eye,  on  Ionic  pottery,  457,  470,  note. 

Fabric,  of  coins,  368,  379. 

Faience,  46,  47. 

Farnese  Bull,  289. 

Fayum,  painted  mummy  tablets,  527,  528, 
529,  537- 

Fea,  Carlo,  14,  21. 

Fellows,  Charles,  19. 

Fibulae,  323  f. 

Figure  vases,  2r;j;   cylindrical,  301. 

Figurines,  see  Terracottas. 

Fikellura,  vases,  458. 

Fine  style,  of  red-figured  vases,  485,  490-503. 

Firing,  of  vases,  423  ff. 

Firnissmalern,  42,  85,  86. 

Fluting,  Doric,  113;  Ionic,  125. 

Forms,  of  Greek  gems,  389;  of  Hellenistic 
gems,  394;  of  vases,  413-419,  487  f.  (red- 
figured),  506  (vases  with  white  background). 

Fortifications,  42,  44,  45,  53,  56,  172  f. 

Foster,  15. 

Foundations,  no  f. 

Francois,  Alessandro,  22;  grotta,  22;  vase, 
22,  418,  423,  427,  473-477,  478. 

French  School,  at  Athens,  18,  25,  30;  at 
Rome,  25. 

Fresco,  46,  50,  51,  536  f. 

Frieze,  Doric,  115;  Ionic,  127,  128. 

Frontality,  law  of,  109,  229,  243,  486. 

Funeral  monuments,  173  ff. 

Furniture,  191  f. 

Furtwangler,  17,  27,  29,  37,  517. 

Furtwang.er  and  Loeschcke,  classification  of 
Mycenaean  vases,  86. 

Gables,  109. 

Garlands,  of  gold,  343  f. 

Geison,  115. 

Gela,  terracottas,  303. 

Gell,  Sir  William,  15,  19. 

Gemma  Augusta,  408  f. 

Gems,  381-411;  primitive,  52,  53;  Myce- 
naean, 82  ff.,  381  f.;  Prehellenic  (chro- 
nology), 92,  93, 94;  geometrical  style,  381  f.; 
seventh  century,  382  f.;  archaic,  384  ff.; 
Persian-Greek,  388;  forms,  389;  style, 
300  f.;  types,  392;  dates,  393;  Hellenistic, 
394  ff.;  cameos,  395  ff.;  style,  398  ff.; 
types,  400  f . ;  Etruscan,  402  ff. ;  Latin,  404  ff . ; 
of  imperial  period,  406  ff. 

Genre,  in  sculpture,  281  f. 


Geometric,   decoration,   44;    style  in  gems, 

381  f.;    style  in  vases,  436-442. 
Gerhard,  Eduard,  21. 
German  excavations,  27,  28,  29. 
Gilding,  of  bronzes,   197;    of  terracottas  at 

Smyrna,  317;    of  vases,  499,  503,  522. 
Girgenti,  132,  135,  136. 
Gjolbaschi,  27,  81,  173  f.,  249. 
Glass  vases,  419  f. 
Glaze,  on  vases,  429  f. 
Gold  and  silver  work,  334-352;   Prehellenic. 

60-82. 
Gournia,  36. 

Graeco-Roman  sculpture,  280-292. 
Grave-vase,  175. 

Greek  Archaeological  Society,  18,  31. 
Guttae,  115,  117. 
Gymnasia,  162  f. 

Hagelaidas,  Argive  sculptor,  228,  291. 

Hagia  Triada,  56,  67,  80,  91,  94,  294. 

Hair,  representation  in  sculpture,  258. 

Hairpins,  344  f. 

Haller  von  Hallerstein,  17. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  14. 

Hansen,  18. 

Harmodius    and    Aristogeiton,    statues    by 

Critius  and  Xesiotes,  217  f.,  222,  231. 
Harpy  tomb,  19,  212,  456. 
Harris,  William,  17. 
Harvesters  vase,  67,  68. 
Hecatompedon,   see   Athena,   old   temple  at 

Athens. 

Hegesiboulus,  vase-maker,  509,  note. 
Helbig,  34. 

Helena,  painted  the  battle  of  Issus,  541. 
Hellenistic,  architecture,  170-192;   gems,  394 

ff.;  mosaics,  538;   painting,  528;  sculpture, 

276-292,  528;    terracottas,  311  ff.,  318  f.; 

work  in  precious  metals,  336  ff. 
Hera,  of  Polyclitus,  233;  of  Samos,  201,  211, 

301. 

Heracleidas,  gem  engraver,  401. 
Heraclides,   description  of  Theban  women, 

306  f. 
Heraeum,  Argive,  29,  236,  294,  297,  316;  at 

Olympia,  98,  no,  in,  135. 
Herculaneum,  13,  20,  22,  23,  190,  527. 
Hermes,  of  Olympia,  25,  27,  256  ff. 
Hermitage,  Museum,  22,  24. 
Hermonax,  vase-painter,  502. 
Herophilus,  gem  engraver,  407. 
Herzog,  R.,  29. 
Heuzey,  Le'on,  20. 
Heyne,  Christian  Gottlob,  14. 
Hieron,  vase-maker,  485,  492,  495-497. 
Hildesheim,  silverware,  337,  340  ff.,  525. 
Hiller  von  Gaertringen,  28,  29. 
Hjpponax,  209. 
Hirschfeld,  27. 

Historical  representations  on  coins,  361. 
Hittorff,  18. 
Hoisting,  of  stones,  99. 
Homeric  bowls,  523. 
Hoppin,  J.  C.,  classification  of  Mycenaean 

vases,  87;  Argive  vases,  444. 


INDEX 


555 


Houses,  Hellenistic,  188-192. 

Howard,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Arundel,  12. 

Human  figures  as  supports,  132  f. 

Humann,  28. 

Hydra,  pediment  relief,  202. 

Hygiaenon,  painter,  530. 

Hyllus,  gem  engraver,  407. 

Icaria,  excavations,  30. 

Ictinus,  architect,  145,  151,  849. 

Ida  (Mt.),  36,  40. 

Idols,  43,  93. 

Incised,  decoration,  4:,  42, 44;  lines,  on  vases, 
428,  430,  431,  note,  444,  449. 

Incrustation,  197. 

Inscriptions,  building,  96;  on  coins,  363  f., 
378,  379;  on  terracottas  at  Myrina,  315; 
on  vases.  (Corinthian)  449,  (Proto-Attic) 
472,  (Attic)  476  ff.,  (Arretine)  524- 

Instruction  in  archaeology,  24,  26. 

Intaglio,  394,  note, 

Ionic,  art,  211,  216,  217,  250,  325  ff.,  334, 
382,  384;  influence  seen  in  Etruscan  paint- 
ings, 527;  school  of  painting  in  seventh 
century,  529;  vases,  454-470  ("Rhodian," 
454,  456  ff.;  Fikellura,  458;  "Melian," 
458-461;  Clazomenian  sarcophagi,  461- 
463;  Africa,  463-468;  Cyrene,  466-468; 
Caeretan  hydriae,  468-470);  relation  to 
paintings,  529. 

Istituto  di  corrispondenza  archeologica,  21,  23, 
25- 

Italy,  terracottas,  318  f.  See  Etruria,  Etrus- 
can, Pompeii,  Rome,  etc. 

Ivory,  66,  67. 

Tahn,  Otto,  at. 
Jewelry,  342-352. 
Joints,  of  columns,  107  f. 

KoAd?  names,  477  f.,  note. 
Kamares  ware,  40,  50,  53,  85,  93,  94,  295. 
Kekule  von  Stradonitz,  35. 
Kertch,  bracelets,  351  f.;    gold  work,  335  f.; 
^terracottas,  310,  320;  vases,  488,  501,  504  f. 
Kilns,  of  potters,  423  ff. 
Kinnaird,  15. 
Klein,  W.,  33. 
Kramer,  Gustav,  21. 
Kul  Oba,  22. 

Laocoon  group,  12,  387-989. 

Leake,  19. 

Lebas,  Philippe,  19. 

Lecythi,  white,  509-512;   polychrome,  reflect 

painting  of  Apollodorus  and  others,  535, 

note. 

Leochares,  262,  263,  279. 
Leonidaeum,  at  Olympia,  161  f. 
Lesche,  161;  of  Cnidians,  161,  531  ff. 
Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  14,  287. 
Lewis,  for  lifting  stones,  too. 
L.jgourio,  statuette  from,  332. 
Linckh,  17. 

Lindus,  excavations  at,  32. 
Lions'  Gate,  55  f.,  60,  64,  69,  70. 


Locri,  Ionic  temple,  124;  terracotta  sheath- 
ing, 154;  terracottas,  319. 

Loeschcke,  G.,  86,  87. 

Aoyeioi',  167. 

Louvre,  20,  24,  27. 

Lucanian  vases,  513,  514. 

Lycia,  19,  27,  212. 

Lycomedes,  gem  engraver,  401. 

Lycosoura,  sanctuary  of  Despoena,  31,  286. 

Lydian  coins,  early,  356,  359. 

Lysicrates,  monument  of,  130,  177. 

Lysippus,  23,  30,  33,  253,  256,  268-273,  278, 
287,  291,  398. 

Macron,  vase-painter,  495,  497  f. 
Magnesia,  28,  29;  altar,  183  f.;  Artemisium, 

153;  market  place,  187. 
Mantegna,  12. 
Mantinea,  work  of  Praxiteles  at,  31,   253, 

261  f.,  275. 
Marble,  97,  195. 
Market  places,  187  f. 
Marsyas  of  Myron,  23,  329,  332  f. 
Masks,  terracotta,  302  f. 
Materials  and  methods,  in  architecture,  06— 

112;    in  coins,  354  f.;    in  jewelry,  342  f.; 

in  metal  work,  322  f.;    in  painting,  536  f.; 

in  sculpture,  193-198;  in  terracottas,  293  f., 

297  ff. ;  in  vases.  420-435. 
Mattmalerei,  42,  85,  86. 
Mausoleum,  19,  23,  178  f.,  253,  256,  263  ff. 
Mausolus,  statue  of,  179,  263,  264. 
Medallions,  Athena  Parthenos,  349  f. 
Megalopolis,  32;   theatre,  167  f.;  Thersilion, 

159  f.,  168,  179. 
Megara,  terracottas,  303. 
"  Tegarian  bowls,  519,  523. 

[egaron,  58,  109,  no. 

Melian,  reliefs,  298;  vases,  454,  455,  458-460. 
Melos,  Aphrodite,  18,  see  Aphrodite;    Phy- 

lakopi,  36,  41,  42,  43,  50;   scarabs,  383. 
Menelaus,  sculptor,  291. 
Menidi,  35,  61. 
Mesopotamia,  mosaics,  537. 
Messene,  fortifications,  172  f. 
Metal  work,  22,  322-352;    metals  used,  322; 

bronze,   323-333;    gold   and   silver  work, 

334-342;    jewelry,   342-352;    Prehellenic, 

60-82. 

Metals  used  in  coins,  354  f. 
Methods,  see  Materials. 
Metopes,  59,  115,  116. 
Micon,  painter,  fifth  century,  531. 
Middle  Ages,  Greek,  95,  381. 
Midias,  vase-painter,  502  ff.,  513. 
Mikkiades,  209  f. 
Miletus,  20,  23,  24,  34,  180,  209,  455;    bou- 

leuterion,     160,     179;     original    home    of 

"Rhodian"  vases,  456,  464;   seated  statues, 

201  f.,  21 1 ;   statue  by  Canachus,  214,  217; 

temple  of  Didymaean  Apollo,  152. 
Miller,  E.,  20. 
Mina,  358. 

Minoan,  40,  95;  religious  rites,  75. 
"  Minor  artists,"  vase-painters,  490. 
Mirrors,  Greek,  328  f.;  Etruscan,  329  f. 


556 


INDEX 


Mnesarchus,  gem  cutter,  384. 

Mochlos.  discoveries  at,  36,  69. 

Montfaucon,  Bernard  de,  14. 

Mortar,  97. 

Mosaics,  537-541. 

Moschophorus,  204  f. 

Moulded  figures  on  vases,  504. 

Mouldings,  in  Doric  architecture,  123;  Ionic, 
126  f.,  128,  129. 

Moulds,  for  terracottas,  209,  300. 

Munich  (glyptothek),  17,  18. 

Museums,  n,  24,  26. 

Mycenae,  35,  40,  50,  53,  54,  55,  56,  60,  62, 
64,  65,  67,  69,  84;  dagger  blades,  77  f.; 
face  masks,  72;  gold  and  silver  work,  69 
ff.;  rings,  75  f.,  79  f.;  shaft  graves,  70  ff., 
94;  terracottas,  295,  316;  vases,  78. 

Mycenaean,  39,  40,  41,  42;  architecture,  56- 
63;  art,  46,  66,  81  f.,  95,  383;  costume, 
66;  gems,  53,  82  ff.,  381  f.;  influence  (in 
Asia  Minor),  442,  (in  the  geometric  style), 
437,  441,  (in  Fikellura  vases)  458,  (in 
"Rhodian"  vases)  456;  mosaics,  537; 
religious  rites,  etc.,  75,  83  f.;  sculpture, 
63  ff.;  lustrous  varnish,  87  f.;  vases,  66, 
85-92,  (plastic  vases)  519. 

Myrina,  34,  35,  310,  3124-315.  320. 

Myron,  23,  228  f.,  332. 

Mythological  representations,  on  vases,  412, 
450,  485,  494;  in  paintings  at  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum,  527. 

Names,  of  potters  and  vase-painters  (black- 
figured  style),  478;  of  vases,  413-419. 

Naucratis,  34;  terracottas,  320;  vases,  454, 
463,  464,  467,  468. 

Nauplia,  terracottas,  295,  316. 

Neandria,  early  Ionic  temple,  142. 


Necklaces,  345  f. 
Neo-Attic  reliefs,  291. 


Neolithic,  39,  92. 

Nereid  Monument,  19,  81,  177  f.,  249  f. 

Nesiotes,  23,  217  f.,  258. 

Newton,  Charles,  19. 

Nicandra,  statue  dedicated  by,  200. 

Nicandrus,  gem  engraver,  401. 

Nicias,  choregic  monument,  176. 

Nicopolis,  22. 

Nicosthenes,  vase-painter,  478,  482  f.,  490, 

506,  519. 
Niemann,  27. 
Nike,   of  Archermus   (?),   209  f.,   327;    of 

Brescia,  280;    of  Paeonius,  27,  227,  278; 

of  Samothrace,  26,  277  f.,  362,  377. 
Niobe  group,  266,  279. 
Nointel.  Marquis  de,  14. 
Nolan  amphorae,  417,  487,  515. 
Norcia,  bronze  chariot,  327. 

Obol,  357- 

Obsidian,  39,  42,  43. 

Oeniadae,  30. 

Olympia,  18,  24,  25,  27,  30,  140  ff.;  altar, 
183;  bouleuterion,  158;  bronze  reliefs, 
324  f.,  442;  gymnasium,  162;  Heraeum, 
08,  no,  in,  135;  Hermes  of  Praxiteles, 


256 f.;  Leonidaeum,  161  f.;   Metroum,  106; 

Philippeum,    154;    stoae.    184;     temple  of 

Zeus,  140,  217,  222-228,  243,   (mosaic  in, 

538);    tomb  of  Pelops,   173;    Treasury  of 

the  Megarians,  214. 
Olympius,  gem  cutter,  390. 
Onatas,  Aeginetan  sculptor,  215;  gem  cutter, 

»I. 

Onesas,  gem  engraver,  401. 
Opisthodomus,  109,  133. 
Orchestra,  165,   166,  167,  168,  199,  170,  171, 

172. 

Orchomenus,  35,  41,  55,  62,  63,  94. 
Orders,      110-133;       Corinthian,      120-133; 

Doric,  113-124;    Ionic,  124-129. 
Ornament  in  architecture,  129. 
Ornamental  patterns  on  red-figured  vases,488f. 
Ornaments,  personal,  352. 
Orvieto,  crater  from,  531  ff. 
Otto,  King  of  Greece,  18. 
Outlines,  on  red- figured  vases,  431  ff. 

Paeonius,  statue  of  Nike,  175,  227,  278;  re- 
puted author  of  pediment  sculpture  as 
Olympia,  226  f. 

Paestum,  135,  136,  137,  138,  513  (vases). 

Pagasae,  painted  stelae,  34,  526,  note,  534. 

Painting,  20,  21,  22,  23,  26,  32,  33,  34,  42,  46, 
90,  450,  462  (Ionic),  526-537,  539,  54i; 
influence  on  sculpture,  249;  monumental 
sources,  526-528;  literary  sources,  529  f.; 
Polygnotus,  530-534;  the  fourth  century, 
534-536;  technique,  536  f. 

Paintings,  copied  on  vases,  486,  499  f.;  Pre- 
hellenic,  42,  46,  50  f.,  94. 

Palaces,  Prehellenic,  45,  50,  56  ff.,  93,  94. 

Palace  style  of  vases,  48. 

Palaeolithic,  39. 

Palaestra,  at  Olympia,  162. 

Palaikastro,  36,  295. 

Pamphaeus,  vase-painter,  489,  490. 

Panaenus,  Athenian  painter,  531. 

Panathenaic  amphorae,  483  f. 

Parascenia,  166,  167. 

Parodi,  166,  170. 

Paros,  productive  of  marble,  97. 

Parrhasius,  painter,  fourth  century,  535. 

Pars,  15, 16. 

Parthenon,  145-147,  213,  231;  sculptures, 
237-245,  246. 

Pasiadas,  vase-painter,  506. 

Pasiteles,  sculptor,  200. 

Pausanias,  11,  30. 

Pausias,  painter,  535. 

Payne  Knight,  Richard,  14,  16;  statuette,  331. 

Pediment,  121. 

Peloponnesian  sculpture,  archaic,  214-216. 

Pendants,  349  f. 

Penrose,  F.  C.,  18. 

Pergamon,  28,  29,  180,  276,  312,  317;  great 
altar,  :8i  f.,  284-286;  mosaics,  538;  school 
of  sculpture,  282-286;  stoae,  184  f. 

Periods  of  coinage,  365  ff. :  archaic,  366  ff. ; 
transitional,  369  ff. ;  of  finest  art,  374  ff.; 
of  late  fine  art,  376  £.;  of  decline,  378  f.; 
of  continued  decline,  379  f. 


INDEX 


557 


Perrpt  and  Chipiez,  37. 

Persian-Greek  gems,  388. 

Perspective,  understood  by  Greek  painters, 
528. 

Perugia,  bronze  reliefs,  327. 

Petersen,  E.,  27. 

Petrarch,  n. 

Petsofa,  46,  294. 

Phaestus,  36,  45,  53,  56,  58,  94. 

Phaleron  vases,  472. 

Pharos  at  Alexandria,  184. 

Pheidon,  said  to  have  invented  coinage,  360. 

Phidias,  33,  228,  229-233;  Athena  Parthenos, 
230  f.;  Zeus  at  Olympia,  231  f. ;  connec- 
tion with  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  244  f. 

Phidias,  gem  engraver,  401. 

Phigaleia  (Bassae),  15,  17,  23,  121,  151,  249, 
264 

Philip  II,  coins  and  standards,  375  f. 

Philo,  gem  engraver,  401. 

Philocles,  Egyptian  painter,  529. 

Philoxenus,  of  Eretria,  painter,  541. 

Phocaea,  possible  place  of  manufacture  of 
Caeretan  hydriae,  470. 

Photography,  26. 

Phrygillus,  gem  cutter,  390. 

Phylakopi,  36,  41,  42,  43,  46,  47,  50,  93,  94. 

Pictorial  representation  in  sculpture,  81. 

Picturesque,  sculpture,  279,  281  f. 

Pinaces,  Corinthian,  422  ff.,  452  f.;  Rhodian, 
457- 

Plan,  of  temples,  133  f. 

Plastic  vases,  518-525. 

Pliny,  ii. 

Polychromy,  on  lecythi,  510.     See  Color. 

Polyclitus,  23,  30,  33,  228,  233-236,  256,  267, 
27°,  332- 

Polyclitus,  the  younger,  169. 

Polydorus,  Rhodian  sculptor,  287. 

Polyeuctus,  statue  of  Demosthenes,  277. 

Polygnotus,  33,  249,  418,  499  f.  (influence  on 
vase-paintings);  530-534,  535- 

Polygnotus,  vase-painter,  502. 

Polymedes,  statue  at  Delphi,  214. 

Pompeii,  13,  20,  22,  23,  24,  34,  190,  319  f. 
(terracottas),  420  (glass),  527,  536  (paint- 
ing), 539  (mosaic). 

Poros  stone,  96,  195,  202-204. 

Porticoes,  160  ff.;  Hellenistic,  184  ff. 

Portland  vase,  410,  420. 

Portraits,  on  coins,  361,  377,  378;  on  gems, 
398  ff. 

Portraiture,  251. 

Poseidon  and  Amphitrite,  relief,  291. 

Potter's  wheel,  42,  47,  86,  293,  421  f. 

Pottery,  early,  41  ff.;   see  Vases. 

Pottier,  E.,  34. 

Praeneste,  mosaic  with  Egyptian  subjects, 
539- 

Praxiteles,  28,  31,  33,  252,  253,  256-262,  265, 
266,  267,  273,  275,  278,  279,  280,  286,  287, 
398. 

Predorian,  40. 

Prehellenic,  24,  35,  36,  38-95;  chronology, 
92-95- 

Premycenaean,  40,  43. 


Priene,  20,  28,  29,  35,  180,  181;  bouleuterion, 
160;  market  place,  187;  private  houses, 
189;  propylaea,  157;  terracottas,  310,  317, 
320;  theatre,  170  f. 

Primitive  terracottas,  294  ff. 

Pronaos,  133. 

Proportions,  in  Doric  architecture,  117  f.;  in 
Ionic  architecture,  128. 

Propylaea,  155  ff.;  at  Athens,  155  ff.;  at 
Eleusis,  157;  at  Priene,  157;  at  Samo- 
thrace,  158. 

Proscenium,  166  f.,  168. 

Protarchus,  cameo  cutter,  398,  401. 

Prothesis,  on  vases,  440  (Dipylon),  511 
(black-figured). 

Proto- Attic  vases,  471  ff. 

Proto-Corinthian  vases,  444-447,  453. 

Protogenes,  painter,  528,  535. 

Protomycenaean,  40. 

Pseira,  discoveries  at,  36. 

Publications,  archaeological,  36  f. 

Pullan,  20. 

Purpose  of  Tanagra  figurines,  309  f.;  of  terra- 
cottas, 320  f. 

Pythagoras  of  Rhegium,  219. 

Python,  potter,  400,  5*3. 

Quarries  and  quarrying,  98. 

Realism  in  Hellenistic  sculpture,  281. 

Red-figured  vases,  430  ff.  (technique),  484- 
506. 

Regula,  115,  122. 

Regulini-Galassi  tomb,  22. 

Reinach,  S.,  34,  36. 

Reljef  vases,  518-525. 

Reliefs,  bronze,  324  ff.,  327  f.;  Campana, 
298;  Melian,  298;  Neo-Attic,  291;  pic- 
turesque, 281  f.;  terracotta,  298. 

Relief-line,  431  ff. 

Renaissance,  n,  23,  37,  81. 

Repousse1,  196. 

Revett,  Nicholas,  15,  16. 

Rhodes,  35,  276;  centre  of  art,  312;  coin 
type,  360,  377;  Mycenaean  vases,  91; 
school  of  sculpture,  287;  terracottas,  294, 
303,  316. 

"Rhodian"  vases,  435,  448,  454,  456  ff. 

Rhoecus,  Samian  bronze-caster,  217,  297. 

Rings,  350  f.,  384  f.,  389;  at  Mycenae,  75  f., 
79  f . ;  of  Mycenaean  times,  82  f. 

Robert,  C.,  33,  36. 

Rohden,  von,  35. 

Roma,  Dea,  292. 

Roman  sculpture,  292. 

Rome,  paintings,  22,  527,  536;  terracottas, 
319- 

Roofs,  59.  109,  120  f. 

Ross,  Ludwig,  18. 

Russia  (southern),  22,  35;  gold  work,  335  f. ; 
jewelry,  343.  See  Crimea,  Kertch. 

Samos,  34;  artistic  centre,  209;  cylindrical 
figure  vases,  301,  316;  "Hera,"  201,  211; 
Fikellura  vases,  458. 

Samothrace,  26,  180;   Nike,  277  f.;    portico, 


558 


INDEX 


184;  propylaea,  158,  181;  round  building, 
155- 

Sarcophagi,  175;  of  Sidon,  175,  274-276;  see 
Clazomenae. 

Sardinia,  gems,  387. 

Satyr,  of  Myron,  229,  332  f.;  of  Praxiteles, 
260  f. 

Saurias,  Samian  painter,  529. 

Scamillus,  114. 

Scaraboid,  381,  384,  388. 

Scarabs,  381,  384,  304,  407;  Etruscan,  402  f.; 
Melian,  383;  Phoenician-Greek,  387; 
Roman,  404. 

Scene  (tncTji/r;),  166. 

Schaubert,  18. 

Schliemann,  Heinrich,  22,  35,  69,  70. 

Schnabelkanne  (Beaked  jug),  47,  48. 

Scopas,  33,  178,  253-256,  263,  265,  266,  267, 
268,  270,  278,  280,  286,  287,  398;  gem 
engraver,  401. 

Sculpture,  193-292;  materials  and  methods, 
193-198;  archaic,  198-217;  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, 217-251;  the  fourth  century,  251-276; 
Hellenistic,  276-292;  Graeco-Roman,  289- 
292;  Mycenaean,  63  ff.;  decorative  and 
substantive,  198;  early  Attic,  202-209;  in 
poros,  202-204;  Na'xian,  an;  Pelopon- 
nesian,  214—216. 

Scyllis,  209. 

Seager,  R.  B.,  36. 

Seijesta,  theatre,  167. 

Selinus,  17,  135,  136,  137,  213  f.,  221  f. 

Semper,  18. 

Serapeum,  at  Alexandria,  153,  179. 

Serradifalco,  18. 

Sesklo,  Prehellenic  settlement,  39. 

Severe  style,  of  red-figured  vases,  485. 

Sicily,  35,  44,  53,  91,  213;    terracottas,  301, 

„.  302,  303. 

Sicyon,  30,  centre  of  art  in  sixth  century,  214, 
215;  in  fifth  century,  221;  important  in 
the  rise  of  painting,  450,  529  f.;  school  cf 
painting  in  fourth  century,  505. 

Sidon,  sarcophagi,  32,  175,  274-276,  539. 

Signatures,  on  coins,  364;  on  vases,  476  f., 
480,  489,  492,  495,  501. 

Silverware,  336-342. 

Sima,  121  f.,  123. 

Siphnians,  treasury  of,  133. 

Siris,  bronze  reliefs,  327. 

Sketch,  of  vase-paintings,  430. 

Smilis,  Aeginetan  sculptor,  217. 

Smyrna,  terracottas,  316,  317. 

Solid  terracotta  figures,  297  f. 

Sosibius,  sculptor,  291. 

Sosus,  of  Pergamon,  mosaicist,  538. 

Sotades,  vase-maker,  508,  509. 

Southern  Italy,  Greek  vases,  512-518. 

Sparta,  30,  32,  468  (Cyrenaic  vases),  520 
(pithos  with  reliefs). 

Spata,  35,  67. 

Sphyrelaton,  197. 

Spon,  Jacques,  14. 

Stadia,  163  ff. 

Stamatakis,  70. 

Standards  of  coinage,  356  f. 


Stater,  356,  357,  358. 

Statuettes,   bronze,  330-333;    terracotta,  see 

Terracottas. 
Stelae,  174,  512;   of  Aristion,  207  f.,  493;   of 

Lyseas,  526;   at  Pagasae,  526,  note,  534. 
Stephanus,  sculptor,  290  f. 
Stereobate,  112. 

Stoa,  of  Attalus,  185;   of  Eumenes,  170,  181. 
Stoae,  1 60  ff.,  Hellenistic,  184  ff. 
Stones,  used  in  architecture,  96;  methods  of 

moving,  98;    working,  in  architecture,  101 

f.;   used  for  gems,  383,  385,  394,  395,  405, 

407,  408,  410. 
Stuart,  James,  15,  16. 
Stucco,  97. 

Styles,  of  vase-painting,  see  Vases. 
Stylobate,  112. 
Submycenaean,  40. 
Substantive  sculpture,  198. 
Symbolism,  in  Hellenistic  sculpture,  279. 
Symbols  on  coins,  363  f. 
Syracusan  coins,  358,  364,  371,  375,  377. 
Syracuse,  135,  136,  173,  174;  altar,  183. 
Syria,  gems,  83,  381,  382. 
Syries,  gem  cutter,  384. 

Taenia,  115,  122. 

Talent,  358. 

Tanagra,  25,  34,  35,  320;  early  figurines, 
295  f.,  305;  figurines  of  fifth  century,  303, 
305;  figurines  of  fourth  century,  301,  305- 
310,  331- 

Tarentum,  terracottas,  303,  319. 

Tarsus,  terracottas,  317. 

Tauriscus,  sculptor  from  Tralles,  289. 

Technique,  see  Materials  and  methods. 

Tegea,  temple  of  Athena  Alea,  31,  151,  253, 
254- 

Telephanes,  Sicyonian  painter,  530. 

Telesterion,  at  Eleusis,  158  f. 

Temple,  109,  133-153;  origin  of,  109;  in 
Sicily  and  Magna  Graecia,  i35_  ff.;  plans 
of,  133  ff.;  Doric,  59;  in  antis,  59,  133; 
prostyle,  134;  amphiprostyle,  134;  perip- 
teral, 134;  early  Ionic,  142  f. 

Tenos,  41. 

Termessus,  theatre,  172. 

Terracottas,  25,  33,  34,  35,  46,  47,  94,  293- 
321;  use  in  architecture,  116,  121,  154. 

Texier,  Charles,  19. 

Thasos,  20. 

Theatres,  165-172. 

Themis,  statue  from  Rhamnus,  276  f. 

Theodorus,  Samian  sculptor,  217,  297;  gem 
cutter,  384. 

Theon,  of  Samos,  painter,  538. 

Thera,  29,  41,  51,  87,  94. 

Thermon  (Thermus),  archaic  temple,  31,  134, 
139- 

Thersilion,  at  Megalopolis,  159  f.,  168,  179. 

Theseum,  112,  147  f.,  229,  245  f. 

Thessaly,  39,  53,  8p,  91. 

Thrasyllus,  choregic  monument,  176,  277. 

Thrasymedes,  sculptor,  262. 

Tiles,  121. 

Timanthes,  painter,  fourth  century,  535. 


INDEX 


559 


Timomachus,  painter  in  first  century  B.C., 
527. 

Timotheus,  sculptor,  262,  263. 

Tiryns,  35,  41,  54,  55,  56,  58,  295,  316. 

Tleson,  vase-painter,  490. 

Tomb,  (Treasury)  of  Atreus,  so-called,  60,  61, 
62,  63,  65,  79. 

Tombs,  at  the  Dipylon,  Athens,  174;  dome 
or  beehive,  61,  62,  63. 

Tombstones,  250,  273. 

Tongs,  for  lifting  stones,  100. 

Tools,  used  in  architecture,  101;  in  sculpture, 
106. 

Tralles,  276,  312. 

Treasuries,  at  Delphi,  133,  154;  at  Olympia, 
154;  so-called,  of  Atreus,  60,  61,  62,  63, 
65,  70- 

Treu,  G.,  27. 

Triglyphs,  59,  115,  116,  122. 

Tripods,  325  f. 

Troy,  35,  39,  41,  44,  91,  293,  519. 

Trunnels,  117. 

Trysa,  see  Gjolbaschi. 

Tsountas,  36. 

Types,  of  bronze  statuettes,  331;  of  coins, 
360  f.,  366  ff.,  (Athenian)  370  f.;  of  gems 
383,  385  ff-,  302  f.,  400  f.,  404,  405,  411 
of  gods  in  the  fourth  century,  251;  of  gods 
invented  by  Phidias,  229;  of  rings,  350  f. 
of  statues  (early),  198  f.;  of  terracottas, 
302,  303,  304  f.,  309,  312  f.;  of  vases  (local, 
geometric),  437  f.;  on  Corinthian  vases, 
448;  of  figures  on  black-figured  vases,  478. 

Typhon,  pediment  sculpture,  203. 

Tyrrhenian  amphorae,  472  f. 

Units  of  coinage,  358. 
Urlichs,  H.  N.,  19. 

Vaphio,  cups,  35,  48,  80,  91. 

Vari,  30. 

Vases,  20,  21,  22,  25,  32,  44,  412-525;   Cretan, 

48;   from  the  Cyclades,  93;    Kamares,  47; 

at  Mycenae.  78;  Kold  and  silver  at  Mycenae, 


75;  Mycenaean,  85-92;  from  Thera,  15, 
87,  94;  forms,  413-419;  technique,  420- 
435 ;  styles,  435-512;  (Geometric,  436- 
442 ;  Protp-Corinthian  and  Corinthian,  442- 
454;  Ionic,  454-470;  Attic,  471-506;  with 
white  background,  506-512);  in  Southern 
Italy,  512-518;  with  reliefs  and  in  plastic 
form,  518-525;  relation  to  painting,  526,  529. 

Venus,  see  Aphrodite. 

Vettersfelde,  objects  of  gold,  334  f. 

Victory,  see  Nike. 

Vjsconti,  Ennio  Quirino,  13,  16. 

Vitruvius,  n,  12. 

Volutes,  125. 

Votive,  offerings,  175;  reliefs,  230. 

Vourva  vases,  472,  473. 

Waldstein,    C.,    Proto-Corinthian  or  Argive 

vases,  444. 

Wall,  of  Doric  cella,  119. 
Walls,  see  Fortifications. 
Wash,  on  vases,  429  f. 
Wheel,  gem  cutter's,  382;    potter's,  42,  47, 

86,  293,  421  f. 
Wheler,  George,  14. 
White  ground,  vases,  435,  506  ff.;  cylixes  and 

pvxides,  507  ff. ;  lecythi,  509-512. 
Wi.kins,  W.,  17. 
Winckelmann,  Johann  Joachim,  13,  14,  15, 

16,  21. 

Winter,  F.,  35. 

Wolters,  P.,  on  Mycenaean  vases,  87. 
Wood,  as  material  for  sculpture,  193  f.,  200, 

201. 

Wood,  J.  T.,  20,  in. 
Wreaths,  on  coins,  379. 
Writing,  in  Crete,  52. 

Xenotimus,  vase-painter,  502. 

Zeus,  on  coins  of  Elis,  361,  362,  363,  373;   of 

Phidias,  231  f.,  362,  363. 
Zeuxis,  painter,  534,  535. 
Zoega,  Georg,  14. 


TV    ' 


UNWER 


A     000  453  332     9 
F  CALIFORNIA 


LIE  ^     . 

CAUF. 


